To provide adequate opportunity for students to achieve the
competencies described in the performance goals, suitable
hardware must be available for use in classrooms and
laboratories.
Environment Goal #1:
Hardware will be provided to meet the instructional
requirements described under school performance standards,
including the following:
Computers (DOS & Macintosh platforms).
Printers, plotters.
Scanners, still video cameras, imaging hardware.
LCD projection panels, scan converters, presentation
technology.
LAN, telecommunications, and connectivity hardware.
Video manipulation and production hardware.
Content specific hardware (technology modules, PT
equipment, materials processing lab, etc.).
Decisions about specific configurations, brands, types,
capabilities, and capacities will be based on factors such as
utility, market availability, and costs. Appropriateness for the
needs of students, faculty, and staff will be a key
consideration.
2. Software
Rationale:
Hardware is essentially useless if appropriate software and
other forms of prepared media are not available for use with it.
The legal requirement of one package or license per one machine
should be followed in providing for software needs.
Environment Goal #2:
The following software and prepared media will be provided
to meet the instructional requirements described under school
performance standards:
Operating systems.
Word processing software.
Spreadsheet software.
Database software.
Integrated software packages.
Presentation software.
Project management software.
Graphics software.
OCR and image scanning software.
Multimedia, hypermedia, and authoring software.
Expert systems and knowledge-base management software.
Content specific software (desktop publishing, CADD, etc.)
Virtual reality and tele-presence software.
3. Updating the Environment
Rationale:
New technology is developed and existing technology is
improved and introduced to the marketplace approximately every
six months. These advances in technology would be integrated
into all offices, classrooms, and laboratories.
Environment Goal #3:
A system will be developed and implemented for updating
hardware, software, and media available for use by faculty,
staff, and students.
4. Distribution of Resources
Rationale:
To effectively integrate the use of technology into the
instructional programs of the school, faculty must be provided
with appropriate equipment, software, and staff development
opportunities.
Environment Goal #4:
Decisions about allocation of resources will be made in an
objective, fair, and equitable manner, with deliberate efforts to
avoid private bias or personal agendas. Requests will be
negotiated and decisions will be made in dialogue with faculty,
staff, and administrators as appropriate for each situation.
Criteria to be considered will include impact on instruction,
impact on research, and availability of resources but the
interelated nature of these and other functions, such as
administration and support services, are recognized.
5. Professional Development Opportunities
Rationale:
With rapid advances and changes in technology, faculty
development opportunities are frequently needed.
Environment Goal #5:
Faculty will be provided with faculty development
opportunities to gain and update technology skills and knowledge.
These opportunities will include training as well as appropriate
scheduling of assigned work loads.
6. Technical Support
Rationale:
The complex nature of technology and related equipment
requires considerable time and expertise for maintenance and
support.
Environment Goal #6:
Appropriate support staff will be provided to install and
maintain technology equipment so that resources are protected and
efficient use of equipment is facilitated. Assistance will also
be available for resolving operational problems.
7. Instructional Hardware: Lighting and Sound
Rationale:
Use of technology in instruction requires selective control
of lighting and sound conditions within the learning environment.
Environment Goal #7:
All instructional areas will be provided with appropriate
controls for ambient and artificial lighting to facilitate the
use of visual presentations. Adequate controls will also be in
place to allow use of audio in instruction without external
interference.
TO THE TOP
Draft - School of Leadership and Lifelong Learning
Technology Performance Goals
These statements describe expected competencies for
undergraduates completing programs of study in the School of
Leadership and Lifelong Learning. The statements also provide
criteria for self-assessment by masters, specialist, and doctoral
students and are appropriate for use in planning a program of
studies. Instruction and expertise to accomplish these goals
will be collectively available from the faculty and staff of the
school.
1. Computer Literacy: Hardware Selection and Care
Rationale:
Understanding the purpose, care, and use of computer
hardware and peripherals provides a basis for use in one's work
and personal life.
Performance Goal #1:
Students will be able to identify the purpose, care and uses
of computer hardware components.
2. Computer Literacy: Multiple Operating Systems
Rationale:
The ability to use more than one operating system is
becoming increasingly important. Students need to be prepared
for a workplace that might require them to manage, maintain, and
use different computers and operating systems.
Performance Goal #2:
Students will have survival skills in multiple operating
systems.
3. Computer Literacy: Selecting Software
Rationale:
New or improved software saturates the market rapidly.
Professionals must be able to select software that is appropriate
for their specific needs.
Performance Goal #3:
Students will be able to select appropriate software for
workplace and personal use.
4. Data Management and Analysis
Rationale:
The ability to use computer technology as a tool to access
large volumes of information is critical to students and faculty
involved in research and other scholarly work.
Performance Goal #4:
Students will be able to use appropriate computer systems
and software to execute research and reference procedures.
5. Computer Literacy: Word Processing
Rationale:
Word processing and document preparation have become
essential tools for education, business, and industry.
Performance Goal #5:
Students will be able to use word processing software to
accurately create, modify, store and retrieve documents.
6. Technology-Enhanced Presentations
Rationale:
The use of electronically generated presentations has
enhanced the way business and other professionals deliver
speeches, conduct workshops and meetings, and deliver training.
Performance Goal #6:
Students will be able to use presentation software and
supporting technology to develop and deliver effective
presentations.
Today's workplace uses an array of technology for
duplicating and sending documents.
Performance Goal #7:
Students will be able to use, combine, and control various
forms of duplication and document transmission technology.
8. Technology-Enhanced Presentations: Multimedia
Rationale:
Multimedia and hypermedia are increasingly used for
enhancing instruction and training in business and industry.
Performance Goal #8:
Students will be able to identify and effectively use
various forms of multimedia (hypermedia).
9. Electronic Communication
Rationale:
Education, business, and government increasingly rely on
electronic channels of communication for their ongoing
activities. Skills in using these resources are necessary for
numerous job functions.
Performance Goal #9:
Students will understand the concept of transmission of
communication from one location to another and be able to
identify and use current forms of telecommunications.
10. Data Management and Analysis: Project Management
Rationale:
Management often requires an ability to control the timing
of various events and activities. With the increasing complexity
of these activities, a computer is an appropriate tool for
enhancing the management of projects and other tasks.
Performance Goal #10:
Students will be able to effectively use project management
techniques including GANTT and PERT charts.
11. Data Management and Analysis: Decision Support
Rationale:
Expert systems and knowledge-based computer applications
enhance decision making and problem solving. These systems are
increasingly important with the rising complexity of
technological systems.
Performance Goal #11:
Students will be able to effectively use the computer to
support decision making and solve unstructured or semistructured
problems using data and models.
Distance learning, teleconferencing, and various forms of
audio-visual transmission between both individuals and groups are
becoming increasingly important in the workplace and in the
delivery of educational services.
Performance Goal #12:
Students will be able to use teleconferencing and distance
learning technologies.
13. Technology-Enhanced Presentations: Video Technology
Rationale:
We now live in a culture permeated with visual images.
Effective presentation of ideas and concepts often requires the
use of various forms of video technologies.
Performance Goal #13:
Students will be able to effectively use video technologies.
14. Societal Impact: Enabling Technology for Persons with
Disabilities
Rationale:
Persons with disabilities are enabled by technology to
participate in new ways. People need an awareness of the
possibilities, limitations, and accommodations appropriate to
provide for the needs of the disabled.
Performance Goal #14:
Students will be knowledgeable about typical apparatus and
technologies used to enable persons with disabilities to
participate more fully in learning and other activities.
15. Profession- or Program-Specific Skills
Rationale:
Technologies associated with workplace requirements are
often specific to a particular field.
Performance Goal #15:
Students will understand the concepts and applications of
technologies appropriate to their field of study.
Appendix 2TO THE TOP
Draft - Technological Studies Program Area
Technology Performance Goals for Students
1. Computer Literacy: Hardware Selection and Care
Rationale:
Understanding the purpose of computer hardware and
peripherals provides a focal point for further study and use of
computer technology. When students and faculty clearly
understand how computer hardware can be used in their work and
personal lives, they become more sensitized to the need to
provide appropriate care and maintenance for computer hardware.
Performance Goal #1:
Students will be able to identify the purpose, care and uses
of computer hardware components, including the ability to:
1.1 read, write, define, understand, and use computer
terminology.
1.2 appropriately select hardware for workplace and
personal use.
1.3 read, interpret, and follow documentation
concerning the care and operation of hardware.
1.4 manage use of hardware, including security,
selection and maintenance arrangements.
1.5 make appropriate connections between computer
hardware and peripheral devices necessary for effective
operation.
1.6 determine peripheral devices appropriate for use
with existing and projected hardware.
2. Computer Literacy: Multiple Operating Systems
Rationale:
The ability to use more than one operating system is
becoming increasingly more important in order for students to be
versatile in the workplace when managing, maintaining and using
different computers and operating systems.
Performance Goal #2:
Students will be able to differentiate between alternative
operating systems and utilities and demonstrate the use of the
operating system to manipulate files including the ability to:
2.1 demonstrate installation of application programs on
alternative operating system.
2.2 format data disks for use on alternative operating
systems.
2.3 integrate information stored in all software
formats including file import and export.
2.4 use a utility program.
2.5 describe the purpose of screen,keyboard, and
printer utility programs.
3. Computer Literacy: Selecting Software
Rationale:
New and/or improved computer software saturates the business
market rapidly. In order to eliminate waste and increase
productivity, students and faculty must be able to determine what
software is appropriate for their specific needs.
Performance Goal #3:
Students will be able to select appropriate workplace and
personal use software, including the ability to:
3.1 select software appropriate for the work or
personal tasks to be performed.
3.2 select software appropriate for the operating
systems being used.
3.3 select software appropriate for the hardware being
used.
3.4 select software appropriate for the peripherals
being used.
3.5 read, interpret, and follow documentation
concerning the care and operation of software.
4. Data Management and Analysis
Rationale:
The ability to use computer technology as a tool to access
large volumes of information is critical to students and faculty
involved in developing scholarly research work.
Performance Goal #4:
Students will be able to execute research and reference
procedures using appropriate computer systems and software,
including the ability to:
4.1 identify and use a variety of research and
reference sources such as libraries, on-line databases, and
information services.
4.2 use information and retrieval systems to gather and
organize information needed for a variety of personal or
workplace projects.
5. Computer Literacy: File Management
Rationale:
The large volumes of information available and manipulated
through the use of computers requires that students and faculty
be able to manage this data for optimum use.
Performance Goal #5:
Students will be able to execute file management procedures
using appropriate computer systems and software, including the
ability to:
5.1 identify the need for disk system management and
organizational skills on hard disks and multi-user systems.
5.2 organize a floppy or hard disk by creating,
accessing, and deleting directories and subdirectories.
5.3 create batch files to automate frequently used
operating system commands and identify appropriate uses for batch
files.
5.4 perform system backup procedures for single files
or entire disks.
5.5 discuss the importance and frequency of file
backups.
6. Computer Literacy: Word Processing
Rationale:
Word processing and desktop publishing have become essential
tools for production and manipulation of documents and
information utilized in typical activities of business and
industry. Therefore, the ability to utilize word processing
software is essential.
Performance Goal #6:
Students will be able to use word processing and desktop
publishing software to accurately create, modify, store and
retrieve multiple work and personal documents, including the
ability to:
6.1 create documents using basic word processing
functions such as word wrap, center, underscore, bold, insert,
typeover, and delete.
6.2 format documents properly and edit or change
document formats as necessary.
6.3 use time-saving features of word processing to
edit/revise documents.
6.4 check document spelling, proofread, and print
documents.
6.5 use an electronic thesaurus.
6.6 use an electronic grammar checker.
6.7 use help screens and written documentation to
review word processing procedures and problem- solve documents.
6.8 Students will demonstrate effective oral and
written communications skills.
6.9 create boiler plates and perform document assembly.
6.10 efficiently manipulate text using various block
procedures.
6.11 efficiently create and execute macros.
6.12 create and manipulate text columns.
6.13 incorporate graphic images along with text in a
single document.
6.14 demonstrate accepted principles of design in
documents prepared for printing.
7. Technology-Enhanced Presentations
Rationale:
The ability to use electronically generated presentations
has changed the way business and other professionals deliver
speeches, conduct workshops, meetings, and deliver training.
Students should be able to use presentation software to assist
them in developing effective presentations while limiting the
amount of time used in their development.
Performance Goal #7:
Students will be able to use presentation software and
supporting technology (e.g., LCDs) to develop presentations
appropriate for use in a variety of education and business
situations, including the ability to:
7.1 identify the advantages of presentation software.
7.2 identify input/output devices and media used in
presentation software.
7.3 identify several applications in which presentation
software and the principles and techniques of constructing
software-based presentations are used.
7.4 recognize and use the components of presentation
design most appropriate for a particular type of presentation.
7.5 assemble information and use statistical
calculations to sort and analyze date appropriate for use in
software-based presentations.
7.6 create reports and/or presentations with emphasis
on strategic placement of graphs and images.
7.7 create text charts, pie charts, bar and line
charts, multiple charts, organization charts, create slide shows,
and design custom charts.
7.8 use galleries, templates, and macro commands to
save time designing presentations.
7.9 use and select appropriate color and/or style
palettes.
7.10 import and export information between software
programs when designing software-based presentations.
Today's workplace uses an array of technology for the
express purpose of producing duplicate and/or transport images of
documents. Since imaging processes are designed to save time and
human effort, students should be able to use and understand
imaging processes.
Performance Goal #8:
Students will be able to use, combine, and control various
forms of imaging technology in producing documents appropriate
for use in education and business situations, including the
ability to:
8.1 identify available imaging technology such as
electrostatic and fiber optics processes, photo imaging, and
electrostatic imaging.
8.2 identify and use photo typesetting, desktop
publishing processes to produce quality documents.
8.3 select an imaging method most appropriate for a
specific job and will be able to determine whether in-house or
commercial imaging is appropriate.
8.4 prepare camera-ready copy and determine the
supplies most appropriate for the imaging process to be used.
9. Technology-Enhanced Presentations: Multimedia
Rationale:
Multimedia and hypermedia are increasingly being used for
enhancing instruction and training in business and industry.
Ability to use these tools will be an increasingly important
skill.
Performance Goal #9:
Students will be able to identify and use various forms of
multimedia (hypermedia) to enhance their school/work performance
and personal development, including the ability to:
9.1 describe and define the use of hypertext and
multimedia.
9.2 use hypertext and multimedia tools to review,
select, link and map textual information with graphic, icon,
video, sound, programs, and other forms of pertinent information
to produce multimedia documents.
9.3 use multimedia to manage and assimilate important
information.
9.4 describe how graphic user interface (GUI)
multimedia development tools are used to incorporate audio,
graphics, text, and animation in applications.
9.5 identify the use of: text and retrieval programs,
freeform databases, and hypertext applications.
9.6 identify current hardware platforms (e.g., CD-
ROM), audio, and animation support necessary for multimedia use.
10. Electronic Communication
Rationale:
Business and industry is increasingly coming to rely on
electronic channels of communication for its ongoing activities.
Skills in using these resources are necessary for numerous job
functions.
Performance Goal #10:
Students will understand the concept of transmission of
communication from one location to another and be able to
identify and use current forms of telecommunications, including
the ability to:
10.1 analyze the telecommunications field and the five
forms of electronically transmitted communications: data, text,
image, voice, and video.
10.2 identify the use of the following
telecommunications processes: point-to-point, bulletin boards,
facsimile, LAN/WAN, voice mail, voice actuation and recognition,
and teleconferencing.
10.3 access a database service.
10.4 use voice and/or electronic mail.
10.5 perform image transmission.
11. Data Management and Analysis: Project Management
Rationale:
Appropriate management of many of the processes of technical
occupations requires an ability to control the timing of various
events and activities. With the increasing complexity of these
activities, computers are an appropriate tool for enhancing the
management of projects and other tasks.
Performance Goal #11:
Students will be able to effectively use project management
techniques including GANTT and PERT charts to help control timing
and reduce the cost of systems projects, including the ability
to:
11.1 identify the advantages of project management
software.
11.2 explain project management terms.
11.3 identify applications in which project management
software can be used.
11.4 coordinate projects and tasks within projects that
involve many people.
11.5 use project management software to track project
status.
11.6 perform all necessary calculations using project
management software.
11.7 prepare various status reports on tasks in
progress, tasks completed, planned tasks remaining, cost and time
budgets, expenditures, and variances.
12. Data Management and Analysis: Decision Support
Rationale:
Expert systems and knowledge-based computer applications can
enhance decision making and problem-solving. These systems are
increasingly important with the rising complexity of
technological systems.
Performance Goal #12:
Students will be able to effectively use the computer to
support decision making and solve unstructured or semistructured
problems using data and models, including the ability to:
12.1 manipulate decision support software to ask ad hoc
and unusual questions.
12.2 manipulate decision support software to support
high-level decisions, and ask questions in an interactive way
while exploring various options of a problem.
12.3 ask questions repeatedly in several ways to augment
the decision-making process.
12.4 use decision tables and trees to understand the
logic of the decision-making process in the current information
system.
12.5 describe the nature and use of expert systems in
decision making.
13. Data Management and Analysis: Optical Scanning Technology
Rationale:
Optical character recognition, bar codes, and image scanning
are tools which are allowing new computer tools to be utilized
with previously produced materials, tapping into resources which
might otherwise be difficult to make use of.
Performance Goal #13:
Students will be able to use, combine, and control OCR and
graphic scanning processes in producing input for documents and
files utilized in business or industry, including the ability to:
13.1 modify scanned images by selecting appropriate
image control settings.
13.2 appropriately apply and adjust lightness, contrast,
angles, position, shading, color, and patterns of scanned images.
13.3 use imaging software and hardware to adjust and
incorporate images into a variety of documents.
13.4 explain typical uses of graphic images used to
represent numerical data (bar codes, magnetic ink character
recognition, etc.).
14. Electronic Communication: Virtual Reality and Telepresence
Technology
Rationale:
Virtual reality and applications such as tele-presence
continue to be developed and incorporated into practical uses.
Related technology educators should be equipped to provide
students with fundamental knowledge and experiences associated
with this field.
Performance Goal #14:
Students will understand the concepts of virtual reality and
be able to identify its uses, advantages, and disadvantages in
education and business, including the ability to:
14.1 describe virtual reality and coinciding terms such
as tele-presence, visualization software, and augmented reality.
14.2 describe and use virtual reality technologies
including visualization software, digital databases, real-time
objects or sound, tactile- sensor equipped gloves, head-mounted
displays, modem-to-modem links, viewer (liquid crystal) screens,
and feedback devices.
14.3 describe business applications of virtual reality
including sales, investments, product design, trouble shooting,
and data modeling.
14.4 describe educational applications of virtual
reality including alternative teaching-learning strategies,
enhanced learning, and ability to: interact with complex
information through the senses, create or recreate distant
events, model aspects of the real-world, and simulate objects,
sounds, worlds, and people.
14.5 describe the effects of combining multimedia and
virtual reality's audiovisual environments with knowledge-based
systems to provide new tools for the workplace.
14.6 identify current physical barriers to everyday use
of virtual reality such as cumbersome equipment to be worn, noise
level of head mount systems, and motion sickness in some
simulations.
14.7 describe emerging virtual reality technologies such
as virtual reality networks and walk-through virtual screens with
3-D interfaces.
14.8 identify standards and rules as they apply to the
use of virtual reality.
14.9 describe ways in which simulation technology may
change as interactive capabilities expand.
Distance learning, teleconferencing, and various forms of
telecommunications between both individuals and groups are
becoming increasingly important in the workplace and in the
delivery of educational services.
Performance Goal #15:
Students will be able to demonstrate operational skills in
the use of teleconferencing and distance learning technologies,
including the ability to:
15.1 present a lesson in a distance learning classroom,
utilizing appropriate equipment for projection of learning aids
as well as demonstrating appropriate control of video and audio
components of this process.
15.2 describe typical applications of distance learning
and teleconferencing.
15.3 identify problems associated with practical
applications of distance learning and teleconferencing and
describe appropriate solutions.
16. Technology-Enhanced Presentations: Video Technology
Rationale:
We now live in a culture that is permeated with visual
images. Effective presentation of ideas and concepts often
requires the use of various forms of video equipment and
technologies.
Performance Goal #16:
Students will be able to utilize video technologies and the
production and presentation of an instructional activity,
including the ability to:
16.1 operate video recorders, cameras, monitors, and
related equipment.
16.2 identify appropriate and inappropriate applications
of video technology, recognizing examples of good and poor
composition and design.
16.3 identify typical problems associated with use of
video technologies and suggest solutions which overcome these
barriers.
17. Societal Impact: Enabling Technology for Persons with
Disabilities
Rationale:
The diversity of modern society is increasingly complex as
persons with disabilities are enabled by technology to
participate in new ways. An awareness of the possibilities,
limitations, and accommodations appropriate to provide for the
needs of the disabled.
Performance Goal #17:
Students will be knowledgeable about typical apparatus and
technologies utilized to enable persons with disabilities to
participate more fully in learning activities, including the
ability to:
17.1 describe available technologies which can assist
participation of visually impaired persons in a learning
environment.
17.2 describe available technologies which can assist
participation of hearing impaired persons in a learning
environment.
17.3 describe available technologies which can assist
participation of physically impaired persons in a learning
environment.
17.4 describe available technologies which can assist
participation of mentally impaired persons in a learning
environment.
18. Profession- or Program-Specific Skills: Basic Manufacturing
Technology
Rationale:
Technologies associated with fundamental manufacturing
processes continue to be an important and integral part of many
essential industries. While these processes are increasingly
being controlled by computers, the basic principles and processes
are fundamentally unchanged.
Performance Goal #18:
Students will understand the concepts and applications of
production processes which changing the shape of materials
through removing material, adding more material, and
redistributing original material, including the ability to:
18.1 describe cutting, boring, reaming, turning,
milling, punching, machining, and other industrial processes for
changing shape through removal of material.
18.2 describe welding, brazing, soldering, metal
spraying, electrochemical plating, fastening, and other processes
for changing shape through addition of material.
18.3 describe forging, pressing, drawing, extruding,
spinning, and other processes for changing shape through
redistribution of original material.
18.4 explain and demonstrate tools and processes used
for fundamental materials fabrication processes.
18.5 explain and demonstrate appropriate safety
procedure for use of materials fabrication equipment and
facilities.
19. Profession- or Program-Specific Skills: Conceptual Organizers
Rationale:
The technologies which have produced the tools for living
enjoyed by advanced countries of our time can be organized in a
number of ways. Some of the organizers which have been used are
communications; construction; manufacturing; energy, power, and
transportation. Principles and applications of these
technologies are fundamental to any study of technology.
Performance Goal #19:
Students will be able to explain and demonstrate key
concepts of communications; construction; manufacturing; energy,
power, and transportation technologies, including the ability to:
19.1 select and safely utilize appropriate equipment and
materials for instruction related to communications technology.
19.2 select and safely utilize appropriate equipment and
materials for instruction related to construction technology.
19.3 select and safely utilize appropriate equipment and
materials for instruction related to manufacturing technology.
19.4 select and safely utilize appropriate equipment and
materials for instruction related to energy, power, and
transportation technology.
19.5 critique, select, and revise modular technology
education activities to provide instruction in all areas of
technology.
20. Profession- or Program-Specific Skills: Critical Technologies
Rationale:
Technological processes continue to change and be refined as
a result of new advances in science and engineering.
Technologies which are essential to the vitality of industry and
business are identified as critical technologies by the U.S.
government. Opportunity to develop knowledge and expertise based
on these critical technologies is important for those who will
become technology teachers and institutional trainers.
Performance Goal #20:
Students will understand the concepts and applications of
critical technologies, including the ability to:
20.1 describe current critical technologies.
20.2 demonstrate fundamental applications of critical
technologies.
20.3 describe new technological developments which are
related to existing critical technologies.
TO THE TOP
Appendix 3
Assistive Technology for Persons with Disabilities
Assistive Technology for the Disabled Computer User
by Linda Wilson
The Institute for Academic Technology
(Information Resource Guide series # IRG-20)
Purpose
This technical paper has two purposes:
To introduce administrators and staff of colleges and
universities to the assistive technology that helps the
physically disabled student use a computer; and
To refer those who need more specific information -- whether on
products and prices, or on agencies that work with and assist
the disabled -- to resources in their area.
Introduction
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), approved by Congress
in 1990, has broad implications for higher education. Although colleges
routinely offer disabled students services such as interpreters and
readers, elevators, wheelchair ramps, and curb cuts on streets, access
to computers is not as widespread. The ADA not only requires employers
to make reasonable adjustments to accommodate the disabled in a job or
work environment, but also mandates that colleges and universities give
disabled students equal access to computers on public campuses.
The ADA reinforces two earlier laws that had a profound effect
on American education: the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and its
successor, Section 504. The Rehabilitation Act prohibits discrimination
against the handicapped at institutions receiving or benefiting from
federal funds. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, which took effect
in 1977, requires the removal of barriers that prevent the disabled
from participating in higher education.
The ADA is likely to have two long-term effects on higher
education:
Increased enrollment of disabled students, many of whom would
have been too discouraged to apply for admission before passage
of the ADA; and
Financial savings to colleges and universities. One-time
expenditures on assistive technology for disabled students will
be more than recouped as the jobs of readers and helpers become
obsolete. In addition, as the independence and self-esteem of
disabled students on campus increases, so too should retention
rates for these students.
Assistive Technology Defined
Computers were designed to perform at maximum efficiency when
used by the nondisabled. But almost all of us employ some type of
adaptive technology when using the computer. Adaptive technology ranges
from wearing eyeglasses or wrist supports, to simply adjusting the
brightness of the screen display or the height and angle of the
monitor.
Broadly defined, assistive technology includes any device or
piece of equipment that increases the independence of a disabled
person. Assistive technology for the disabled, of course, is not new.
For instance, the wheelchair has long been an indispensable assistive
device for those with impaired mobility.
The distinction between adaptive technologies employed by the
nondisabled and assistive technologies for the disabled blurs at times.
Some of the assistive technologies designed for the disabled have
proven so ergonomically sound that they have been incorporated as
standard features. One such example is the placement of the keyboard
on/off switch on the Macintosh computer, which was originally designed
so that people with motor impairments would not have to reach to the
back of the machine to turn the power on and off.
Assistive technology has increased enormously the ability of
the disabled to lead independent lives. Computer-based environmental
control units allow disabled users to turn on lights, appliances, and
open doors from a wheelchair. Augmentative communication devices enable
those who cannot speak to voice thoughts and needs using touch- or
light-activated keyboards coupled to synthetic speech systems. Screen
reading programs for the blind, screen magnification systems for those
with low vision, and special ability switches that permit the
mobility-impaired to use a computer are only a few examples of the
technology by which the disabled gain access to the computer screen and
keyboard.
Although this technical paper addresses only those assistive
technologies that help the disabled use a computer, more information on
environmental control technologies and augmentative communication may
be obtained through many of the sources listed in the Resource Guide,
which follows the conclusion section of the paper.
Problem Areas for the Disabled in Computer Access
The disabled user wants access to the personal computer or
network workstation for the same reasons as the nondisabled. However,
modifications and even alternatives to standard computer hardware and
software are often necessary to make the computer accessible to the
disabled user.
The standard personal computer system -- disk drive, keyboard,
mouse, monitor and screen -- can present barriers to certain disabled
users. Some common access problems are discussed below.
Disk drive -- Handling diskettes is impossible for some users
due to lack of strength or dexterity. In addition, those with
impaired mobility may not be able to turn the computer on or
off if the power switch is located to the rear of the hardware,
as is frequently the case.
Keyboard -- The standard QWERTY keyboard used on most
personal computers is often inaccessible to people with
impaired mobility or fine motor control. Many disabled users do
not have the strength required to press the keys on a standard
keyboard. Those with limited range of motion are not able to
move their hands easily from the alphabetic keypad to the arrow
keys, function keys, or number keypad. Other users with
uncontrolled or involuntary hand movements make frequent typing
errors by pressing the wrong key, or by pressing a key longer
than normal, inadvertently activating the automatic key-repeat
feature of many keyboards.
Mouse -- Using a standard two- or three- button mouse may not
be possible for those with impaired vision, mobility, or motor
control; successful use requires not only sufficient vision to
follow the graphical representation of the mouse on-screen, but
also adequate fine motor control and strength to activate and
control the mouse. Manipulating text and graphic displays by
clicking, pointing, and dragging with the mouse is an acquired
computer skill for all users, and requires considerable
practice before mastery. Use of a mouse also requires
sufficient strength and motion in the shoulder and arm to
position and manipulate the device on the desktop or mousepad.
Monitor and Screen -- The screen display is not accessible to
blind users or those with low vision without magnification or
text-to-speech conversion. On the other hand, the screen
display is accessible to the deaf user, but requires
modification so that audible error messages or "beeps" are
converted to text that the deaf user can read.
Intended Users of the Technologies
Five areas of human functioning -- the ability to see, to hear,
to move about freely, to speak, and to learn -- are so critically
important that by almost any criteria, irreversible loss of any one of
these abilities is disabling. Among college and university students,
access to computers is most often compromised by impairments of vision,
hearing, and mobility.
For the disabled user with low vision, access to the computer
requires one or more means of assistance: speech, large print, or
Braille. The blind user employs speech, Braille, or a combination of
the two.
The hearing-impaired or deaf user usually adapts most easily to
using the computer, since the standard medium of exchange between user
and computer is visual. Often only minor modifications, such as an
alternative to the audible warning beep, are needed for this user.
Users with impaired mobility and motor disorders must be
evaluated carefully so that their best remaining function is
incorporated in the plan of access to the computer. The ability to
stand and walk unassisted, the range of motion of the joints and spine,
and any loss of muscle strength, motor control, or coordination are all
considered when selecting the appropriate assistive technologies. A
disabled user whose best voluntary, controlled movement is the raising
of an eyebrow can be fitted with a switch to access the keyboard. Those
with impaired mobility use alternative input devices such as joysticks,
ability switches, and modified keyboards. Keyguards cut down on extra
keystrokes, while software modifications deactivate the automatic
keystroke repeat feature.
Current Technologies
Visual Impairments
The technology available to disabled computer users who are
blind or have low vision is extensive. The choice of the appropriate
technology depends on a number of factors. Among these are the cause of
the visual loss, the extent of loss of visual acuity, the quality of
peripheral vision, and any other physical or mental limitations that
might affect use of a computer. What follows is a description of the
major types of technology available to the blind or low-vision computer
user. Examples of products on the market currently are by no means
exhaustive.
Screen reading programs usually consist of two parts: a
software program and a speech synthesizer. The software program,
working as an overlay between a popular off-the-shelf application
program and the disabled user, directs keyboard input to the speech
synthesizer. IBM ScreenReader is a well-known screen-reading software
program used in conjunction with many brands of speech synthesizers.
The speech synthesizer attaches to a computer's RS232C port and
converts standard ASCII text into speech. The synthetic speech can be
directed to headphones, so that it does not disturb others. The user
has the option of controlling the output of the speech synthesizer in
several ways; for instance, the rate of speech produced may be
adjusted, or the output may be read character-by-character, or
line-by-line. When spelling out words or numbers, the synthesizer can
also be set to pronounce all spaces and punctuation marks as well. A
capital letter is read with altered pitch. The aesthetic quality of
synthetic speech varies greatly, ranging from the metallic quality of
cheaper synthesizers to the almost lifelike voices produced by DECtalk
from Digital Equipment. DECtalk, widely acknowledged to represent the
state-of-the-art in speech synthesis, offers pleasant speech output in
the user's choice of nine different speaking voices.
Large print screen displays are created in one of two ways:
stand-alone software programs, or hardware- and software-based
magnification systems.
Stand-alone software magnification programs enlarge the normal
text display of other application programs. One such program is
AI Squared's ZoomText, which can enlarge the text display by a
magnification power of 16. Such programs operate as an overlay
between the application and the user.
Screen magnifying systems employ both hardware and software
adaptations to magnify the screen display. Vista, made by
Telesensory Corporation in Mountain View, California, is a
hardware-based screen magnifying system that uses a circuit
card, a mouse, and cursor-tracking software to provide
on-screen text magnification of up to 16 times the standard
screen display. The user has a choice of presentation modes
full screen, single line, ruler view, dual view, zooming glass,
and magnifying glass all of which enlarge selected text and
graphics. In dual view, for instance, the user points to any
portion of the standard screen display with the magnifying bar
controlled by the Vista mouse, and the same part of the display
appears, magnified, along the bottom of the screen. The user
can customize the magnification to his preference. Other options
include the ability to invert the screen display to show dark
letters on a light background, since many people find the
reverse display reduces eyestrain.
Braille computer systems allow users to access the screen
display in Braille one line at a time. The user types input from a
keyboard. Fitting between the user and the keyboard is a hardware
device that accepts input from the keyboard, and translates it
line-by-line into a tactile Braille display for the blind user. The
Braille-based computer system is especially useful to those who work
with large amounts of data. Navigator by Telesensory, a well-known
Braille display system, couples to any DOS-based computer via a serial
port and contains the software necessary to read the screen.
Pocket Braille computers such as Telesensory's BrailleMate and
Blazie Engineering's Braille 'n Speak contain both speech synthesizer
and Braille keyboard. They are used as portable note takers, address
books, calculators and clocks. BrailleMate stores up to 128 Braille
pages in internal memory; the information can be downloaded to a
Braille display system such as the Navigator, or to a PC via a standard
serial port. Braille 'n Speak has a 200,000-character memory and an
optional disk drive accessory that permits the user to save files from
Braille 'n Speak to standard 3.5 inch diskettes.
Braille software translators and embossers enable users to
print high-quality Braille documents from a PC. Duxbury Braille
Translator is a well-known software translation program. The software
converts the screen display to Braille before it is sent to the Braille
embosser to be printed.
Reading systems perform optical character recognition to
convert printed text into speech or computer files. The Kurzweil Reader
by Xerox is a self-contained system that uses a scanner, a computer,
and a speech synthesizer to read aloud the contents of printed material
placed on the scanner. The machines are limited to reading printed
material only; handwriting and most newspapers are indecipherable.
OsCaR by Telesensory and Arkenstone are other well-known optical
character recognition scanners.
Mobility Impairments
Many adaptations are available to assist those with impaired
mobility use the computer. Although a standard keyboard and mouse are
the input devices of choice for most people, other devices have been
developed. Among the most frequently used are modified and alternate
keyboards, ability switches, and headpointers and joysticks. These
methods are used in many variations and combinations, based on the
abilities and needs of the mobility-impaired user. Whatever the method,
the computer treats the input from these methods as if it had been
received through the standard keyboard.
Modified keyboards include some relatively simple assistive
technologies designed to decrease the number of typing errors, and thus
increase productivity of those with impaired mobility. Descriptions of
three of these follow.
The keyguard is a lightweight overlay, often plastic, that
fits over the regular keyboard; holes are punched out of the
plastic so that each standard key can be pressed if chosen
deliberately, either with the fingers or mouthstick. The
keyguard cuts down on accidental keystrokes substantially.
Permanent large print key labels can be placed on each
character, number, and punctuation mark of the standard
keyboard. The visually impaired user may benefit from this
adaptation, as do children.
Software exists that will disable the automatic-repeat feature
of most keys on the IBM keyboard.
Alternate keyboards come in many styles. The keyboards consist
of a series of membrane switches arranged for ease of use. Some
alternate keyboard designs keep the standard QWERTY keyboard
arrangement, but omit numbers and enlarge the letter keys. On the other
hand, users who input only numeric data may opt for a keyboard
consisting entirely of enlarged numbers. Other keyboards are arranged
so that the most frequently used characters and numbers are in central
position. Miniature keyboards are available for those with good
pointing skills within a limited area. Many alternate keyboards require
a separate hardware interface unit between the keyboard and the serial
port, although the trend is toward alternate keyboards capable of
direct attachment to the keyboard port. Popular interface units are
Ke:nx (pronounced CONNECTS) for the Macintosh, Expanded Keyboard
Emulator or DADA Entry for IBM and compatibles, and the Adaptive
Firmware Card for Apple IIs.
Ability switches provide access to the screen display without
using a keyboard. Optimum use of ability switches requires careful
assessment of the user's best voluntary function. The switches can be
mounted mechanically to wheelchairs, desks, or almost anywhere else the
user might need the switch positioned. Switch mounting systems often
consist of adjustable arms attached to clamps and allow many users who
have severe motor disabilities to use a computer. A switch interface
unit acts as the link between the switch and the computer.
Due to the wide variety of user abilities, many types of
switches are available. Switches exist that can be activated by only a
raised eyebrow, if that is the user's most reliable movement. Ability
switches can provide feedback for users who require it. This feedback
often occurs in the form of an audible click upon activation.
Commonly-used switches include the following:
Button switch
Plate switch
Infrared switch
Sound-activated switch
Treadle switch -- for those with arm, elbow, foot, or knee
control
Pillow switch -- a soft, fabric-covered switch often used when
activation is by a facial movement
Sip-and-puff switch -- controlled by voluntary inhaling and
exhaling, frequently used by those with spinal cord injuries
Eyeglass switch -- activated by a purposeful eye movement
Arm slot control switch for those without fine motor control.
Shifting the arm among the five arm slots activates switches
that reproduce joystick or mouse control.
Operating a computer with switches involves learning one of two
techniques:
With scanning, the cursor moves repeatedly from one character,
or group of characters, to the next, often in a clockwise or
counterclockwise motion. The user selects desired characters or words
from the computer display by activating the switch when the cursor
falls on that character or word.
With direct selection methods, the user points to target items
with a headpointer, mouthstick, or joystick. Pointing devices allow
users who have at least one voluntary, functional movement access to
the computer. The Magic Wand Keyboard from In Touch Systems of Spring
Valley, New York, incorporates a full-function PC keyboard with
built-in mouthstick. The unit plugs directly into the keyboard port of
any IBM or compatible, and is designed for mouthstick users. It
requires very little strength to operate.
Speech, Language, and Learning Impairments
Online computer instruction is a particularly good medium for
intensive remedial training. The strengths of the computer in education
include its capacity for constant, individual feedback to the student,
along with an unlimited ability to carry out drill and practice
exercises until a subject is mastered.
Computer packages have been designed to improve the speech and
language capabilities of those with poor hearing and speech, and also
to assist those with cognitive injuries or learning disabilities. Among
the current adaptations are IBM SpeechViewer, a vehicle for speech
therapy, and word prediction software programs.
IBM SpeechViewer increases the efficiency of speech therapy by
synchronizing audio playback with interactive graphic displays of the
user's speech. The hearing- or speech-impaired user speaks into a
microphone, and if, for instance, loudness is the attribute being
measured, a balloon on-screen inflates as he speaks at the desired
level.
Word prediction software programs are beneficial not only to
the learning disabled, but also to users with mobility impairments. The
programs operate in a way similar to the spelling check feature found
in many word processing programs: as the user types the first letters
of a word, the word prediction program compares it to a dictionary of
words that begin with those same letters. A window appears on-screen
with the list of words; if the user finds his intended word in the
list, he enters one keystroke, and the word is inserted into his
document. If not, he continues typing until the program presents him
with the match. Proper names and terms not included in the software can
be added to the program's dictionary for future use. For those with
mobility impairments, the saving in keystrokes adds greatly to their
productivity. Dyslexic students also benefit from the word prediction
programs. MindReader is a word prediction program available as
shareware.
Conclusion
No doubt the scope of assistive technology for the disabled
computer user will enlarge in the future. New opportunities for the
disabled student in higher education will naturally lead to increased
assimilation into the work force upon graduation. Assistive technology
for disabled computer users supports the precept behind the Americans
with Disabilities Act equal access to opportunity for the disabled.
The following section lists resources -- both nonprofit and
for-profit -- for readers who need more information about assistive
technology.
Resources available throughout the United States are listed
first; resources open only to residents of North Carolina are listed
second; and resources for readers with access to electronic computer
networks are listed third.
USA and Canada
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)
10801 Rockville Pike
Rockville, MD 20852
(301) 897-5700
ASHA is a professional association of speech-language pathologists and
audiologists who develop computer technology to assist the disabled.
Baruch College
The City University of New York
17 Lexington Ave
Box 515
New York, NY 10010
(212) 447-3070
Baruch College Computer Center for the Visually Impaired is a research
and training center devoted to assistive technology for the visually
impaired nationwide. The center offers frequent training classes in
software applications, primarily WordPerfect, DOS, dBase, and Lotus.
They also consult with employers of the visually impaired on hiring and
equipment needs. The center has a facility for producing Braille maps
and graphics, as well as documents in large print and Braille.
Carroll Center for the Blind
Computer Access
770 Centre St.
Newton, MA 02158
(617) 969-6200
A private, nonprofit rehabilitation center for the legally blind,
Carroll Center includes a computer division offering training in
technical skills.
Closing the Gap
P.O. Box 68
Henderson, MN 56044
(612) 248-3294
This organization hosts an annual national conference, and publishes
Closing the Gap, a bimonthly newsletter about assistive technology for
the disabled. A subscription costs $26 per year, and includes a copy of
the annual resource directory.
IBM National Support Center for Persons with Disabilities
Independence Series
Building 5, 3rd Floor (IBM)
P.O. Box 1328
Boca Raton, FL 33429
(800) 426-4832 - Voice
(800) 426-4833 - TDD
The Center serves as a clearinghouse for information on technological
advances that offer greater opportunity and independence for disabled
people in the home, school and workplace.
National Braille Press, Inc.
88 St. Stephen St.
Boston, MA 02115
(617) 266-6160
National Braille Press publishes books for the blind and visually
impaired, primarily in Braille, but also in print, cassette, and
computer diskette versions.
Solutions - Access Technologies for People Who Are Blind is NBP's
updated guide to computer hardware, software, and peripherals for the
blind and visually impaired. Issued in 1992, the print copy costs
$26.45 (shipping included); Braille, cassette, or IBM/compatibles
diskette versions cost $21.95 each (no shipping charges).
National Easter Seal Society
70 East Lake St.
Chicago, IL 60601
(312) 726-6200
The National Easter Seal Society publishes a newsletter,
Computer-Disability News: The Computer Resource Quarterly for People
with Disabilities. Subscription price is $15 for one year, $27 for two
years, and $40 for three years. Local Easter Seals organizations offer
many services to the disabled.
National Organization on Disability (NOD)
910 Sixteenth Street NW
Washington, DC 20006
(202)293-5960 (Voice)
(202)293-5968 (TDD)
(202)293-7999 (Fax)
NOD is a nonprofit organization serving as an information clearinghouse
for the disabled.
Prentke Romich makes the augmentative communication systems TouchTalker
and LightTalker, as well as computer access equipment and environmental
control systems.
TASH (Technical Aids & Systems for the Handicapped, Inc.)
Unit 1, 91 Station Street
Ajax, Ontario
Canada L1S 3H2
(416) 686-4129
Affiliated with the Canadian Rehabilitation Council for the Disabled,
TASH sells hardware and software products including ability switches,
environmental controls, keylocks, keyguards, keyboards, keyboard
emulators, and disk guides.
Trace Research and Development Center on Communication Control and
Computer Access
University of Wisconsin-Madison
S151 Waisman Center
1500 Highland Ave.
Madison, WI 53705
(608) 262-6966
The Trace Center provides information on development of communication
and computer access for people with disabilities, including
HyperAbleData, a desktop version of the AbleData database of more than
17,000 products designed for the disabled user.
Resource Guide
North Carolina
NC Assistive Technology Project Demonstration Center
1110 Navaho Drive, Suite 101
Raleigh, NC 27609
(919) 850-2787
One of four demonstration centers in the state, the center has an
extensive variety of assistive technologies on display, including many
for the disabled computer user. Consumers can try out the devices, and
also use the resource library and AbleData database to obtain more
information on products. The center is open to groups or individuals by
appointment.
Telephone numbers for the other demonstration centers are:
Charlotte:
(704) 355-2703;
Greenville:
(919) 830-8575;
Winston-Salem:
(919) 761-2290.
North Carolina Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped
1811 Capital Boulevard
Raleigh, NC 27635
(919) 733-4376
(888) 388-2460 (NC only)
Operated by the state, the North Carolina Library for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped is a public library service that circulates
books and magazines to those who cannot use standard reading materials
because of a visual or physical disability. Large print, Braille,
records, and cassette tape versions are available to qualified readers
throughout the state.
North Carolina Department of Human Resources
Services For The Blind
Division of Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation Center for the Blind
305 Ashe Ave.
Raleigh, NC 27606
(919) 733-5897
A demonstration center at the Rehabilitation Center for the Blind in
Raleigh contains perhaps the most comprehensive collection of assistive
technology for the blind and low- vision computer user in the state.
Clients with visual impairments can use and compare many different
technologies in the same place. Reading systems, screen reading
programs with voice synthesizers, screen magnifying systems, tactile
Braille screen reading hardware, and pocket Braille computers are all
on display.
The center also offers a variety of summer programs to help teenagers
and young adults develop the skills they need to prepare for college
and adult life.
o a pre-college assessment program for high school
students undecided about attending college;
o a personal skills program for high school sophomores
and juniors;
o an adolescent evaluation to assess visual functioning,
travel ability, communication skills, and academic
status for ages 15 and older; and
o a college preparatory program for the college-bound
student. Training during the program, which will be
held during the 1993 summer session at North Carolina
State University in Raleigh, will cover note taking and
