CARRIE ANN COLVIN BOOHER

Design Standards for Elementary, Middle/Junior High, and High School Counseling Facilities

(Under the Direction of C. KENNETH TANNER)

As public and legislative interest has increased in the areas of school safety and character education, much attention has focused on the role that professional counselors play in schools. The professional literature offers few descriptions of the design standards of facilities that elementary, middle/junior high, and high school counselors need in order to address barriers to academic, vocational, and personal achievement. This study sought to increase the knowledge base in the area of the facility needs of school counselors.

This study surveyed school counselors regarding their perceptions about actual and ideal counseling facilities. The School Counseling Facility Survey was developed from a review of the school counseling and facility literature. Alpha reliability coefficients for the sub-scales on the survey ranged from .8445 to .9555. Counselors responses were compared across the variables: age of the building, level of facility satisfaction, level of job satisfaction, academic level of the students served, and the type of community.

Cross tabulations and contingency coefficients examined significant relationships among the counselors’ perceptions of their actual facilities. Of the few significant relationships that were identified, most were found among the design items and the academic level of the students served. A one-way analysis of variance procedure identified significant differences among the counselors’ perceptions of their ideal counseling facilities. Significant differences were found among several of the design items and the academic level of the students served. Counselors’ responses to open-ended questions suggested the addition of several intriguing design items regarding the location of the facility, access to technology, and permanence of the facility for counselor use.

Design standards included counselor identified important design items for counseling offices, reception areas, conference rooms, playrooms, career/college rooms, storage areas, and the location of the counseling facility. Architectural drawings, derived from the counselors’ responses, were provided for elementary, middle/jr. high and high school counseling facilities.

It is recommended that architects, facility planners, and school boards utilize the design standards and architectural drawings to design more effective school counseling facilities. The ranking of the means of counselors’ responses as illustrated in this study could be especially helpful when allocating limited resources for counseling facilities.

INDEX WORDS: School counselors, School counseling facilities, Design standards, Architectural designs, School learning environments

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature regarding the role of the professional school counselor, the facilities needed to fulfill that role, and elements of the school facility that influence emotions, thoughts, and behaviors.

History of counseling in schools

The dawn of the twentieth century brought increased concern for the welfare of children. “Creation of playgrounds and parks, more understanding treatment of children who came into conflict with the law, and correction of child labor abuses” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 22) illustrate society’s developing interest in the lives of children. In order to decrease pervasive poverty and crime, social reformers asserted the need for “better conditions of living, continuous employment, and general education” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 23-24). “The climate which demanded the elimination of prevailing inequities established by the reform movement permitted and facilitated the beginning of counseling” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 24).

“Most authorities identify the emergence of vocational guidance as the beginning of modern-day counseling” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 24). Vocational guidance was based on the premise that students needed assistance choosing an appropriate and

rewarding vocation. Through vocational guidance, students were better able to match

11

their individual aptitudes and abilities to the occupational requirements (Shertzer & Stone, 1974).

“The child study movement contributed to the development of counseling” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 24). Through the work of G. Stanley Hall, “the child came to be looked upon as an individual person, and studies were made of physical and mental characteristics” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 24). In order to better understand mental characteristics, tests were developed to measure general intelligence, personality, interest, and aptitude.

The National Committee for Mental Hygiene was formed in 1909.

“Its work and influence have been broad in scope and far-reaching in effect. By calling attention to the need for prevention and early identification and treatment, it has encouraged educators and parents to become more sensitive to the deep insecurities and loss of identity among youth and has thus fostered the initiation of counseling programs in schools and community clinics” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 24).

“Compulsory school attendance, improved labor laws, and expanded curricula brought thousands of young people into school who sometimes had no desire to be there and few clear ideas of why they were there or what they wanted” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 26). School administrators began to recognize the need to offer individualized assistance for students who had no choice about attending school. “Personal attention was needed to help each individual marshal his assets to find his way through the school and complex environment outside it” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 26).

The federal government has been extremely influential in the development of school counseling through the Departments of Labor and Health, Education and Welfare (Shertzer & Stone, 1974). “Depression and war influenced the development of counseling by highlighting the critical need for counselors and, through the urgency it generated, the need to refine and improve psychometric instruments, counseling and placement methods” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 27). Additionally, financial assistance was provided for educating, training, and employing counselors through the National Defense Education Act of 1958 and the later extensions” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974).

As a result of the federal funding, the counseling profession grew quickly in the 1950’s. During the fifties, a group of professional educational and vocational associations aligned with one another (Schmidt, 1996). Also during the fifties, counseling theories such as Rational Emotive Therapy, Adlerian Counseling, Reality Therapy, and Multimodal Counseling were introduced. These theories were shown to be extremely useful and effective in an educational environment (Schmidt, 1996).

During the sixties and seventies, society experienced many advances in technology. These advances lead to dramatic social, educational, career, and economic changes. These changes encouraged “people to seek the assistance of counselors in solving personal and social difficulties or in locating information to make career decisions” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 15). The expanding needs of students led to increased discussion about the appropriate roles and functions of school counselors. “Clarification of the school counselor’s role and functions during the 1960’s led the way toward a broader professional perspective focus on programs of services offered by counselors in schools” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 17). “Many writers at this time emphasized comprehensive guidance and counseling programs as essential aspects of the school curriculum. The intent of these programs was for school counselors and classroom teachers to play a vital, collaborative role” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 17).

During the late sixties and seventies counseling became available in elementary schools. “The elementary movement gave a clearer identity to the school counseling profession as a developmental force in the education of children and adolescents” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 19). The expanded perspective led to counselors collaborating and consulting with teachers and parents to offer assistance in the optimal development of all children (Schmidt, 1996).

Into the eighties and nineties, counselors continued to develop and refine a clear description of their role, functions, and identity at the elementary, middle/junior high, and high school levels. In the late nineties, the American School Counseling Association recognized the need for a “universally accepted description of a comprehensive school counseling program” (Campbell & Dahir, 1997, p. 9). In order to “define the vision and goals for the 21^st century for a more unified school counseling profession”, the National Standards for School Counseling Programs were developed (Campbell & Dahir, 1997, p. 9).

“The National Standards for School Counseling Programs reflect the input of more that eleven hundred survey participants, more than one hundred years of school counseling history, hundreds of research studies, state and local district models, and suggestions from the thousands of school counselors nationwide who participated in field reviews and presentations” (Campbell & Dahir, 1997, p. 6).

Additionally, a Transforming School Counseling Initiative, directed by the Education Trust (1996), “has focused attention on the role counselors can play in enhancing the educational experiences and outcomes for all students” (Paisley, 2001, p. 278). The Initiative has developed a new vision of the role of school counselors that

“extended the current model of school counseling focused on comprehensive, developmental, and collaborative programs to include components associated with educational leadership, advocacy, team-building, and the use of assessment data. This initiative has also encouraged multidisciplinary, community-based, systemic interventions rather than individual or school-based models” (p. 278).

It is clear that the field of school counseling will continue to develop and improve the services that school counselors provide to students, parents, teachers, and administrators.

Nature of the work of a school counselor

Over the past few decades, society has changed drastically. More and more children experience divorce, violence in their families and their communities, poverty and neglect. Many children are more concerned about where they will find their next meal and where they will sleep at night than their math homework. Even children who have more stable homes experience stress related to growing up and transitioning from one grade level to the next. Each day, children bring these stresses with them to school. School counselors offer specialized assistance in order to address these stresses that often lead to barriers to academic achievement.

Borders’ and Drury’s (1992) noteworthy synthesis of thirty years of empirical work and professional statements about school counseling offers much helpful information about the field to policymakers and practitioners. Borders and Drury’s (1992) findings suggest that “school counseling interventions have a substantial impact on student’s educational and personal development” (Borders & Drury, 1992, p. 495). Borders and Drury (1992) note, “individual and small group counseling, classroom guidance, and consultation activities seem to contribute directly to students’ success in the classroom and beyond” (Borders & Drury, 1992, p. 495). Borders and Drury (1992) further assert, “school counselors should spend the majority of their time performing these interventions” (p. 495).

Paisley and Borders (1995) suggest, “the appropriate focus for school counseling is considered to be on comprehensive and developmental programs. Such programs include individual, small-group, and large-group counseling as well as consultation and coordination. These programs still offer certain types of responsive services related to remediation and crisis intervention, but they now emphasize primary prevention and the promotion of healthy development for all students” (p. 150).

“The work of the school counselor has long been characterized by a strong belief that guidance is for all students and that the purpose of guidance is to promote maximum personal development in all spheres of life” (Dagely, 1987, p. 102). School counselors are child advocates who serve as an integral member of the educational team providing proactive and preventative means of addressing barriers to academic, vocational, and personal achievement (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Borders & Dury, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Paisley, 1999; Paisley & Borders, 1995; Paisley & Hubbard, 1994; Schmidt, 1996). In order to best meet the needs of all children, school counselors “design a comprehensive program of services with specific goals and objectives that complement the broader mission of the school” (Schmidt, 1999, p. 29). “Counselors continually assess the needs of their students, evaluate their programs, and make changes in the school counseling program to better meet the current, identified needs of students” (Campbell & Dahir, 1997). Comprehensive counseling programs seek improve the delivery of services to all of their participants all of the time.

“A comprehensive school counseling program is developmental and systematic in nature, sequential, clearly defined, and accountable. It is jointly founded upon developmental psychology, educational philosophy, and counseling methodology” (Campbell & Dahir, 1997, p. 9). Borders and Drury (1992) suggest, “the developmental program is proactive and preventative, helping students to acquire the knowledge, skills, self-awareness, and attitudes necessary for successful mastery of normal developmental tasks” (Borders & Dury, 1992, p. 488). In order to offer the most effective developmental and comprehensive programs, school counselors must work collaboratively with students, teachers, administrators, parents, and community agencies (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Paisley, 1999; Paisley & Borders, 1995; Paisley & Hubbard, 1994; Schmidt, 1996).

Through a developmental and comprehensive school counseling program, counselors promote an increase in knowledge and skills in the areas of personal and social development, academic development, and career development (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Borders & Dury, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Paisley, 1999; Paisley & Borders, 1995; Paisley & Hubbard, 1994; Schmidt, 1996). In the area of personal and social development, elementary school counseling programs address self-awareness, communication skills, conflict resolution, character education, personal safety skills, and valuing individual differences. In the area of academic development, elementary school counselors primarily address listening skills, study skills, and test taking skills. All of the aforementioned knowledge and skills apply to career development. Additionally, elementary school counselors help students to begin to investigate the world of work.

Morse and Russell’s (1988) survey of one hundred and thirty elementary school counselors explored their perceptions of their actual and ideal roles as a school counselor. The counselors’ responses indicate that they actually spend most of their time working as consultants with school psychologists, educational specialists, and teachers. Morse and Russell (1988) also note that the participating counselors spent much of their time with individual students regarding understanding their feelings and improving their self-concepts. For their ideal school counseling roles, the participants preferred to work as a consultant primarily to teachers, to offer small groups for social skill development, self-concept improvement, development of an understanding of feelings and problem solving skills. Morse and Russell (1988) assert that “those who serve as administrators for school counseling programs, might note that the results of this study indicate that counselors may need more time, freedom, and cooperation to conduct group counseling in the school” (p. 60). Unfortunately, Morse and Russell (1988) neglect to mention that along with time, freedom, and cooperation, school counselors need adequate facilities in which to offer group counseling.

Middle/Junior High school counseling programs address the area of personal and social development through emphasis on decision making and goal setting skills, communication skills, conflict resolution and character education. In the area of academic development, middle/junior high school counseling programs often provide study skills and test taking skills. Additionally, school counseling programs explore secondary and post-secondary academic options. In the area of career development, middle/junior high school counseling programs introduce the relationship between education and training, personal qualities, and the world of work.

High school counseling programs emphasize the areas of academic and career development. In the area of academic development, high school counseling programs work closely with students to identify the academic coursework necessary for specific postsecondary options. In the area of career development, high school counseling programs offer students skills to explore the world of work in relation to the knowledge of their own personal characteristics and to make effective career decisions.

Since a comprehensive school counseling program is proactive and preventative in nature, little emphasis is based on crisis-oriented services. Unfortunately, even with comprehensive programs in place, crisis continues to occur. Therefore, school counselors also provide crisis intervention and remediation services as necessary (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Borders & Dury, 1992: Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Paisley, 1999; Paisley & Borders, 1995; Paisley & Hubbard, 1994; Schmidt, 1996).

The primary delivery methods of effective school counseling programs are counseling, coordinating, consulting and collaborating (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Borders & Dury, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Paisley, 1999; Paisley & Borders, 1995; Paisley & Hubbard, 1994; Schmidt, 1996). Counseling delivery methods include individual counseling, small group counseling, and classroom guidance. Individual counseling consists of brief and private one-on-one meetings with students to discuss specific academic, personal, family or social concerns. The focus is on the students’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Paisley & Hubbard, 1994; Schmidt, 1996). Small group counseling consists of counselor(s) meeting with more than two students to discuss common concerns. Group members have an opportunity to learn from one another and test new behaviors in a safe setting (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Paisley & Hubbard, 1994; Schmidt, 1996). During classroom guidance lessons, counselor(s) meet with larger groups of students to deliver developmental guidance curriculum based on the standards of the local school system, the specific needs of the students, and/or the National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997). Paisley (2001) asserts that counseling activities may be designed “not only to address a particular problem at the moment but instead to prevent future problems” (p. 272).

Coordinating responsibilities are widely varied through out different schools. They may include organizing and implementing school wide activities such as peer leaders, new student orientation, delivery of guidance curriculum, student support teams, and (unfortunately in many schools) the standardized testing program (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Schmidt, 1996). Consulting and collaborating methods facilitate open communication between and among the educational team, students, parents, community members, social services, and business leaders in order to best meet student needs. Counselors consult and collaborate through individual conferences, Student Study Teams, staff development/education, and parent education classes (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Myrick, 1993; Schmidt, 1996). Paisley (2001) suggests “a school counselor cannot provide the types of services, programs, experiences and environments that are necessary in comprehensive school counseling in isolation. In part, this is based on there being more work than one person can do” (p. 272). Additionally, Paisley (2001) asserts that counseling interventions are “more effective as multi-faceted; yet integrated programs” (p. 272).

Through comprehensive school counseling programs, counselors serve as educational leaders (Paisley, 1999). Their counseling, consultation, collaboration, and coordination activities allow them an opportunity to become change agents within the educational system. School counselors’ advanced training in the areas of group development, communication skills, and accountability is vital in a dynamic and responsive educational environment.

School counselors are frequently caught between what they perceive their role to be and what their principals, school boards, parents and legislators think they should be doing. Paisley and Borders (1995) assert, “the lack of control over one’s professional life and destiny probably contributes a great deal to …the ongoing confusion and controversy about the appropriate focus for its practitioners” (p. 152). In many ways, the principal, school board, and facility designers determine what roles a counselor will fulfill. For example, if the principal, school board, and facility designers want the counselor to offer many small groups, they will provide the counselor with sufficient time, space and materials. If the principal, school board and facility designers view the counselor as an additional administrator or disciplinarian, they will only provide access to a small office with professional furniture. If principals, school boards, and facility designers want counselors to assist students in removing barriers to academic achievement through all of the methods that they have been trained to utilize, they will provide school counselors with facilities that support and facilitate therapeutic environments.

Facility Needs Specific to School Counselors

“Counseling can occur almost anywhere, but some physical settings help promote the process better than others” (Gladding, 1992, p. 178). “Physical facilities are so important because they often provide students with their first and sometimes permanent impression of the guidance program” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994). “To provide confidential counseling and consulting services for students, parents, and teachers, counselors need appropriate space within the school setting” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 52). The most thorough descriptions available in the literature concerning school counseling facilities are written by Gysbers and Henderson (1994) and Schmidt (1996).

In Gysbers and Henderson’s (1994) text, Developing and managing your school guidance program, they specifically address the facility needs of school counselors. They note, “attention to the type and use of physical space and equipment of a comprehensive guidance program is often neglected” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 224). “Unfortunately, what attention is given remains fixed to the traditional ways of organizing guidance” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 224). Gysbers and Henderson (1994) assert, “traditionally guidance facilities have consisted of an office or suite of offices designed primarily to provide one-on-one counseling assistance” (p. 225). Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest that in order “to make the guidance curriculum, individual planning system, and responsive services function effectively, and to provide appropriate support to other programs, a new way of organizing guidance facilities is needed” (p. 224). Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest that there is a need to “open up guidance facilities, to make them more accessible to students, teachers, parents, and community representatives” (p. 226). “Physical facilities are so important because they often provide students with their first and sometimes permanent impression of the guidance program” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p.223). “In addition to students, staff and parents gain impressions about the program as well” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p.224).

Gysbers and Henderson (1994) support the development of “comprehensive guidance centers”. “A comprehensive guidance center can bring together available guidance information and exploration resources and make them easily accessible to students. The centers can be used for such activities as group sessions, self-exploration, and personalized research and planning” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 226). These facilities would include a counselor’s office, secretary and reception area, an area for records storage, a workroom, a group counseling room, a conference room, a registrar’s office, a data processing and scheduling assistant’s area and a career center area (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994).

At all educational levels, these centers would be student-centered with many of the activities planned and directed by students (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994). For example, “at the high school level, students can gain assistance in such areas as occupational planning, job entry and placement, financial aid information, and postsecondary educational opportunities” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 226). “At the middle school/junior high school level, students can gain assistance in such areas as career planning, high school educational opportunities, community involvement, and recreational activities” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 226). “At the elementary school level, students and their parents can gain information about the school, the community, and parenting skills, and read books about personal growth and development. An area for counseling with toys can be provided” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 226).

The facility would be located in a central area of the building, with each of the aforementioned offices and areas near one another (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994). The square footage would be determined the size of the student body and the types of activities that the room was designated for and the types of furniture and equipment needs (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994). “The guidance facilities should be furnished in as comfortable a way as possible for all users” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p.224). Gysbers and Henderson suggest that in the counselors’ offices, furniture needs include “a professional desk and chair, guest chairs, bookshelves, credenza, file cabinets, student tables and chairs” (1994, p. 224).

Gysbers and Henderson (1994) mention the communication needs of school counselors. They suggest the need for private telephone lines. They also suggest the need for two way intercom connections equipped with lights to indicate when in use. The lights would help to ensure privacy in the counseling center (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994). Gysbers & Henderson (1994) urge that the intercoms in the counseling center not be hooked up to the school public-address system due to concern for privacy and confidentiality.

Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest that the walls of the facility should be covered in tackable surfacing. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) further suggest the use of fireproof concrete blocks and sound proofing materials. Additional acoustic considerations are suggested in order to insure privacy, including the location of the counseling offices in relation to the other rooms in the counseling center (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994). Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest that marker boards and bulletin boards should be included. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) note that the use of carpeting or vinyl floor covering would be appropriate in the counseling center. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest the need for lockable doors due to the confidential nature of the student information in the counseling center. In addition to the locks on doors, Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest the need for small windows to offer privacy and security for the users of the counseling center.

Professional school counselors at all academic levels have a variety of storage needs. For storage purposes, Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest the need for several lockable cabinets. Other storage requirements would be determined based upon the specific types of equipment and materials that the counselors plan to utilize (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 225).

Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest that separate controls are needed for lighting fixtures. They do not specify types of lighting fixtures or sources. They do address the use of natural lighting. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest the need for electrical outlets and computer hookups. They do not discuss the amount or location of the electrical outlets or computer hookups. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) assert that there would be no need for access to plumbing.

Gysbers and Henderson (1994) address a portion of the thermal needs of school counselors. They suggest the need for air conditioning units on a system that could be utilized during the summer break for counselors on twelve-month contracts. While they do not specifically address the need for heating systems, it seems that they are assuming that the counseling center would not have heating needs that would be separate or unusual to the entire building. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) do not mention the need for personal thermostat controls within the counseling facility.

While Gysbers and Henderson made these recommendations in 1994, change toward comprehensive guidance centers has been slow in many districts or even non-existent. Gysbers and Henderson’s (1994) facilities design standards suggestions are a good place to begin when considering the facility needs of school counselors. Unfortunately, they do not address all of the facility needs of school counselors. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) failed to address types of lighting sources, windows to the outdoors, paint colors, and proxemic issues. Their reference to the need to furnish the center comfortably indicates that they have some concern for the aesthetics of the facility. But, they neglect to make specific recommendations regarding fostering a feeling “warmth” for the users of the facility beyond furnishings.

In Schmidt’s (1996) Counseling in schools: Essential services and comprehensive programs (2^nd ed.) text, the facility needs of school counselors are discussed. Schmidt (1996) acknowledges that school counselors have facility needs that differ from the other educators in school buildings. Schmidt (1996) suggests, “school counselors have [facility] needs of their own. One such need is to have sufficient physical space to provide individual and small group counseling” (p. 52). Schmidt (1996) asserts that in order “to provide confidential counseling and consulting services for students, parents, and teachers, counselors need appropriate space within the school setting” (p.52).

Schmidt (1996) asserts that counselors at the elementary, middle/junior high, and high school levels have differing facility needs. Schmidt (1996) suggests “ideally, an elementary school counseling center includes a private office for confidential sessions with students, parents, teachers, and others and an adjoining larger room for group sessions, play activities, and other services” (p. 52). Schmidt (1996) notes that the larger room could include, “tables and chairs; shelves for storing games, books and other materials; a sink for cleaning up after playing with paint, clay or similar media; and a computer center for self-awareness inventories, problem solving questionnaires, and interactive learning” (p. 52).

Schmidt (1996) indicates that a middle school counselors’ needs differ from that of an elementary school counselor. “In middle schools, counseling centers consist of one or more counselor’s offices and a larger outer space for students to use books, computers, games, and other materials for self-instruction” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 53). “In some instances, middle schools assign a secretary to the counseling program and have a reception area. Also, counselors have access to a conference room to hold small group sessions with students, parents, and teachers” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 53).

Schmidt (1996) addresses the facility needs of high school counselors. Schmidt (1996) suggests, “senior high counseling centers are similar to middle school designs except that in large high schools there are more offices for counselors, and space may be designated for career materials and equipment” (p.53). Schmidt (1996) notes, “senior high counseling centers usually store and display career and college materials in an area where students can have ready access to this information. In some centers, computer terminals are available to students who want to search for career and college information” (p. 53). Schmidt (1996) suggests that senior high counselors need to “have access to one or more conference rooms used for small groups, testing, departmental meetings, and other activities (p. 53).

Schmidt (1996) notes, “in past years, cumulative records were frequently filed in the counseling center” (p. 53). Schmidt (1996) suggests that this practice has negative consequences such as impeding teacher access while the counselor is occupied. “Furthermore, having student records in the counseling center perpetuates the ‘guidance image’ of the 1940s and 1950s and the image of the counselor as keeper of the vault and manager of the records” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 53). Schmidt (1996) suggests that in the elementary and middle schools, “student records should be filed in the administrative offices where appropriate school personnel can have adequate access” (p.53). “In high schools, where counselors may need more frequent access to student folders, a separate file room near the counseling center is suitable” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 53).

Schmidt (1996) also addresses the importance of the location of the counseling center. Schmidt (1996) notes, “historically the counseling office was located near the school’s administration suite. Although this was advantageous in terms of communication between counselors and administrators, it sometimes was a handicap because students and teachers tended to associate counselors with the school administration. This association did not always enhance the image of counselors as advocates for all students” (p. 53).

Schmidt (1996) suggests, “counseling centers should be located so that everyone in the school has equal access” (p. 53). Schmidt (1996) asserts the “the location of a counseling center should enhance its visibility, facilitate communication between all groups in the school, and invite people to enter and use its facilities” (p. 54). A location such as this, “places the school counselor in an optimal position to create and deliver beneficial services to a wide audience” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 54).

Schmidt (1996) suggests that due to the wide variety of users of a school counseling facility, it should be “furnished with appropriate-size tables and chairs” (p. 57). For example, an elementary school counselor would need child and adult sized furnishings. A high school counselor would only need adult sized furnishings.

Schmidt (1996) asserts, “all counselors should have a telephone with a private line for consultations and referrals” (p. 57). Schmidt (1996) also suggests the need for a “storage area for materials and equipment”, “access to a conference room”, “a waiting area or activity area outside the counselor’s office” (p.57). Additionally, Schmidt (1996) suggests, “other equipment might include file cabinets, projectors, audio and video players, computers, and typewriters” (p. 57).

Unfortunately, Schmidt’s (1996) presentation of the facility needs of school counselors is incomplete. Schmidt (1996) does not address lighting issues or the use of windows in the counseling facility. Schmidt (1996) also neglects the need for electrical outlets. Schmidt (1996) does not acknowledge the need for lockable doors or small windows in the doors. Schmidt (1996) does not address thermal or air quality needs in counseling facilities. Schmidt (1996) does not discuss the floor covering needs of school counselors. Schmidt (1996) neglects to mention the need for an effective two-way intercom system. Schmidt (1996) ignores the aesthetic issues in school counseling facilities. Additionally, Schmidt (1996) does not address the issue of paint color in counseling facilities.

In Hawkins and Lilley’s (1998) Guide for School Facility Appraisal, the facility needs specific to school counselors are briefly discussed. Hawkins and Lilley (1998) assert that the guidance facilities should be located near the administration offices and main entrance of the building. Hawkins and Lilley (1998) suggest that direct access to the administration should be avoided (p. 30). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) suggest that the “counselor’s office should insure privacy and sufficient storage” (p. 38). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) note that at the elementary level “space in the building for student consultation on both individual and small group basis is necessary” (p. 38). At the middle/junior high and high school levels, “a modest reception area and one or more counselor’s offices will be essential. A conference room and storage for materials and supplies complete the requirements” (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998, p. 38). Hawkins and Lilley’s (1998) specific descriptions of the facility needs of school counselors are not comprehensive. However, the Guide for School Facility Appraisal (1998) includes general school facility features that are applicable to the school counseling facility. These features are discussed in the sections that follow.

Hawkins and Lilley (1998) discuss commonplace building features in ideal educational environments. Several of those features are applicable to counseling facilities such as “use of some windows, at least one per instructional area”, “telephones in each classroom”, “extensive use of carpeting throughout learning areas”, and “increased use of color and acoustical treatments” (Hawkins and Lilley, 1998, p. 6). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) also suggest, “each learning/teaching area has adequate convenient wall outlets, phone and computer cabling for technology applications” (p.16). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) suggest the use of an “intercommunication system [that] consists of a central unit that allows dependable two-way communication between the office and instructional areas” (p. 18).

Hawkins and Lilley (1998) discuss the furnishings in educational facilities. They suggest that furniture and equipment can be used to provide a pleasing atmosphere. Specifically, Hawkins and Lilley (1998) emphasize the importance of the scale or size of furniture being consistent with the age group served in the building. Hawkins and Lilley (1998) further suggest, “the lines and shapes of furniture and equipment also have an effect on their environment. Even the way in which furnishings are grouped leads to differences in psychological reactions” (p. 41). This reference to furniture arrangement and psychological reactions relates to proxemic issues that can impact counselor and counselee relationships.

Hawkins and Lilley (1998) acknowledge the importance of attention to aesthetics in the educational environment. Hawkins and Lilley (1998) suggest, “color schemes, building materials and décor provide an impetus to learning” (p. 41).

Hawkins and Lilley (1998) note, “There is considerable research showing that the color has a very definite effect on the occupants of a room. Such conclusions are especially relevant to educational settings. A feeling of warmth results from the use of red, yellow, orange and rich brown in furnishings. A room can be made to create a cool feeling through a décor emphasizing blue, green, pale neutrals and white. The warm colors tend to produce increased activity while the cool colors foster relaxation” (p. 41).

Hawkins and Lilley (1998) address the benefits of windows in educational facilities. Hawkins and Lilley (1998) assert, “window design contributes to a pleasant environment” (p. 44). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) note, “windows in schools increase the costs, in terms of construction and maintenance. However, most individuals, teachers and students state a preference for some use of windows” (p. 44). “At least one state has enacted a law requiring operable windows in all new classrooms” (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998, p. 44).

Hawkins and Lilley (1998) address the acoustical needs in educational facilities. “Whether the instructional space is a regular classroom, an auditorium or music room [or counseling facility], the areas will be more effective for teaching and learning if reasonable effort is made to control sound” (p. 44). They suggest various acoustical treatments to the ceilings and walls including the use of special tiles and draperies (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998). Additionally, “floors are made sound absorbent through the use of carpet. This type of floor covering probably does more to improve acoustics in the room than any other sound control material” (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998, p. 44).

Hawkins and Lilley (1998) address the thermal needs in educational facilities. Hawkins and Lilley (1998) note, “teachers in general express dissatisfaction with the heating and cooling of their buildings” (p. 42). “Often the rooms or zone controls are not made accessible to teachers or the thermostat provided does not actually control anything” (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998, p. 42). “Often the lack of ventilation rather than the temperature is the source of the problem relating to room comfort” (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998, p. 42). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) suggest that the ventilation system should provide adequate and quiet circulation of clean air (p. 42).

The Gwinnett County Public Schools Educational Specifications for Guidance and Counseling Facilities (2000) addresses many of the facility needs of school counselors. The educational specifications were developed through years of experience designing schools and the input of cross-functional teams. The cross-functional teams included teachers, local school administrators, district level administrators, and facility planners. The educational specifications are supposed to be utilized in the planning and designing of new and remodeled school facilities.

The educational specifications suggest, “the counseling department should consist of a reception area with five offices accessible from the reception area” (GCPS, 2000). “A large conference room that could be easily partitioned into two conference rooms is essential” (GCPS, 2000). In addition, a storage room and restroom are suggested (GCPS, 2000). A room with wall-to-wall shelving and wiring for several computers is required to have a career development center (GCPS, 2000).

All school records should be maintained in a fireproof records room near the counseling center with space for a records clerk to maintain the records (GCPS, 2000). The education specifications suggest that the records room should not be part of the counseling suite, but should be a separate office near the counseling department and registrar (GCPS, 2000). The educational specifications suggest that the registrar’s office should not be part of the counseling suite, but a separate office near the records storage room to check, change and update records (GCPS, 2000).

Within the counseling facilities, the GCPS educational specifications (2000) address furniture requirements. The furniture requirements in the counseling offices include: an executive desk and chair, a round conference table accompanied by four comfortable upholstered arm chairs, two comfortable upholstered sided chairs, a wood bookcase, a letter filing cabinet and a legal filing cabinet (GCPS, 2000). The furniture requirements in the reception area include: a secretarial desk and chair, a computer desk, an upholstered settee, two upholstered side chairs, and an entire wall of floor to ceiling adjustable shelving, and a tack board for display (GCPS, 2000). The storage room is to be equipped with two entire walls of floor to ceiling adjustable shelving that is one foot deep and a tack board for display (GCPS, 2000).

The educational specifications (GCPS, 2000) offer a list of special requirements specific to school counseling facilities. They suggest that carpeting is used as a floor covering in the counseling facilities (GCPS, 2000). Two to three electrical outlets are to be provided in counseling offices and the receptacles should be spaced on three walls (GCPS, 2000). A half-window is to be included in the door to counseling offices (GCPS, 2000). The front of the reception area should be constructed with glass (GCPS, 2000). The counseling office walls are to be constructed with cinder blocks and should be acoustically treated to maintain confidentiality (GCPS, 2000). The offices should be large enough to hold small groups of six to eight students (GCPS, 2000). Pastel shades should be used for interior colors (GCPS, 2000). The door to the storage areas should be lockable (GCPS, 2000). The educational specifications urge that a “relaxed, congenial atmosphere is desired” throughout the counseling facility (GCPS, 2000).

The educational specifications (GCPS, 2000) address the equipment needs in school counseling facilities. In the conference room, a projection screen is required equipment (GCPS, 2000). The counseling office equipment requirements include a networked desktop computer and a telephone (GCPS, 2000). The reception area equipment requirements include: an IBM computer, color monitor, printer, calculator with item counter, and telephone (GCPS, 2000). The equipment requirements in the career development lab include: a projection screen, tape cassette recorder, junction boxes, headphones, VCR, television, computers with monitors and printers, and an overhead projector (GCPS, 2000).

The educational specifications address the square footage needs in school counseling facilities (GCPS, 2000). Elementary school counseling offices require two hundred square feet (GCPS, 2000). Storage rooms in elementary school counseling facilities require one hundred square feet (GCPS, 2000). Middle and High school counseling offices require three hundred square feet (GCPS, 2000). Middle and High school counseling storage rooms require one hundred and eighty square feet (GCPS, 2000). Middle and High school career development labs require three hundred and twenty four square feet (GCPS, 2000). Conference rooms require three hundred and thirty six square feet (GCPS, 2000). Reception areas require three hundred and twenty four square feet (GCPS, 2000).

The Gwinnett County Public Schools Educational Specifications for Guidance and Counseling Facilities (2000) are quite comprehensive in addressing the facility needs of school counselors. Unfortunately, many of these specifications are not utilized in the design of counseling facilities within the Gwinnett County Public Schools. The actual counseling facilities in the Gwinnett County Public Schools do not include many of the design elements that the educational specifications “require”.

Summary of Specific Facilities Needs of School Counselors

Ideally, elementary school counseling facilities would include a private office for each counselor, a conference room, reception area, storage area (Borders & Dury, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; GCPS, 2000; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996), and a playroom (Landreth, 1991, Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999). The middle/junior high and high school counseling facilities would include a private office for each counselor, a conference room, reception area, storage area (Borders & Dury, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; GCPS, 2000; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996), and a college/career center (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994).

The counselors’ office could be utilized for counseling, coordinating and consulting. Each office should be large enough to hold groups of six to eight people (GCPS, 2000). The office should include a private telephone line for consultation and coordination (Borders & Dury, 1992; GCPS, 2000; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999). A computer with printer and Internet access is useful for coordination, accountability and planning activities (GCPS, 2000; Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999). Gysbers and Henderson (1994) and the Gwinnett County Public Schools Educational Specifications (2000) note the importance of a professional desk and executive chair in each counselor’s office.

The conference room could be utilized for counseling, collaborating and consulting. In the conference room, counselors’ could meet with small groups of students, parents, and teachers (Borders & Dury 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996). The reception area would offer students, parents, and teachers a place to wait for appointments and peruse guidance materials (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996). A storage room could be used for organization and storage of materials and equipment (Borders & Dury 1992; Bordwell, 1998; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996).

A playroom would be a useful addition to an elementary counseling program and could be used to provide counseling with toys and art materials for individuals and small groups of students (Landreth, 1991; Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999). The college/career room at the middle/junior high and high school levels “can bring together available guidance information and exploration resources and make them easily accessible to students” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 226).

Aesthetic/Proxemic Issues

Shertzer and Stone (1974) suggest, “the room should be comfortable and attractive” (p. 254). “Counseling facilities should be designed for comfort and relaxation” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 254). “Pictures, draperies, carpet, plants, and the like are usually viewed as conducive to creating an unhurried climate in which the individual may express himself” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 254).

“The general appearance of a counseling facility depends upon color, décor, lighting, arrangement of equipment and furnishings, and noise control” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 255). Shertzer and Stone (1974) suggest, “furnishings should be harmonious and comfortable, and the décor is usually subdued but not depressing” (p. 255). In counseling facilities, “light, quiet colors are often used to give a feeling of friendliness” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 255). Shertzer and Stone (1974) assert, “ by attention to features such as these tensions are eased, feelings of warmth and comfort are engendered, and rapport and contact are encouraged. Needless to say, the same features which lead to an aesthetically pleasing environment for the counselee enable the counselor to function better” (p. 255). Gladding (1992) suggests that features such as “soft lighting, quiet colors, an absence of clutter, and harmonious, comfortable furniture” (p. 178) improve the appearance of the physical setting as well as facilitating counseling.

Maslow and Mintz (1956) investigated the effects of beautiful and ugly environments on people. The study “tested the short-term effects of three visual-aesthetic conditions: beautiful, average, and ugly rooms” (p. 248). Maslow and Mintz (1956) note, “the beautiful room impressed people as attractive, pretty, comfortable, and pleasant” (p. 248). The dimensions of the beautiful room were 11’ x 14’ x 10’ (Maslow & Mintz, 1956). The room included “two large windows, beige-colored walls, an indirect overhead light, and furnishing to give the impression of an attractive, comfortable study” (Maslow & Mintz, 1956, p. 248). The furnishings included “a soft armchair, a mahogany desk and chair combination, two straight backed chairs, a small table, a wooden bookcase, a large Navajo rug, drapes for the windows, paintings on the walls, and some sculpture and art objects on the desk and table” (Maslow & Mintz, 1956, p. 248).

Maslow and Mintz (1956) note, “the ugly room evoked comments of horrible, disgusting, ugly, and repulsive” (p. 248). The dimensions of the room were 7’ x 12’ x 10’ (Maslow & Mintz, 1956). The room included “two half-windows, battleship-gray walls, an overhead bulb with a dirty, torn, ill-fitting lampshade, and furnishings to give the impression of a janitor’s storeroom in disheveled condition” (Maslow & Mintz, 1956, p. 248). The furnishings included “two straight-backed chairs, a small table, tin cans for ashtrays, and dirty, torn window shades” (Maslow & Mintz, 1956, p. 248).

Maslow and Mintz (1956) note, “the average room was a professor’s office 15’ x 17’ x 10’ with three windows, battleship-gray walls, and an indirect overhead light” (p. 248). The furnishings included “two mahogany desk and chair combinations, two straight-backed chairs, a metal bookcase, window shades, and a metal filing cabinet” (Maslow & Mintz, 1956, p. 248). The room “gave the appearance of a clean, neat, worked-in office in no way outstanding enough to illicit any comments” (Maslow & Mintz, 1956, p. 248).

Participants in each of the three room conditions were shown identical photographs and then were asked to rate the pictures based on their perception of the mood of the person in the photograph (Maslow & Mintz, 1956). The responses of the participants in the ugly and average room conditions indicated that they tended to perceive the people in the photographs as “fatigued and displeased” (Maslow & Mintz, 1956, p. 251). The responses of the participants in the beautiful room condition indicated that they tended to perceive the people in the photographs as “having energy” and “experiencing well-being” (Maslow & Mintz, 1956, p. 251). These results suggest that the aesthetic environment influences the perception of nonverbal facial expressions.

It is important to note that the negative perceptions of the facial expressions were experienced in the ugly and average room conditions. Due to budget constraints, school facility planners and school boards often aim for average or good enough in school facilities. Maslow and Mintz’s (1956) findings suggest that average is not good enough when the interpretation of facial expressions is concerned.

Maslow and Mintz’s findings have important implications for the school counseling facility. If the aesthetic environment affects the way that people interpret facial expressions, it could affect the development of rapport and relationship between counselors and counselees. Gladding (1992) asserts, “counseling relationships start with first impressions. The way that counselor and client perceive one another is vital to the establishment of a productive relationship” (p. 179). Shertzer and Stone (1974) note, “the counselor’s nonverbal behavior is of extreme importance in establishing and maintaining a relationship” (p. 267).

Regarding communication, Mehrabian (1971) suggests, “the impact of facial expression is greatest, then the impact of tone of voice (or vocal expression), and finally that of words. If the facial expression is inconsistent with the words, the degree of liking conveyed by the facial expression will dominate and determine the impact of the total message” (p. 180).

Therefore, counselors should be sensitive to their facial expressions and any aspect of their facility that could affect the counselees’ interpretation of facial expressions.

Shertzer and Stone (1974) note, “many of the skills and attitudes of the counselor are transmitted to the counselee through his nonverbal behavior: facial expressions, posture and eye contact” (p. 267). Shertzer and Stone assert, “it is equally obvious that the counselor learns much of the feeling components through observations of the client” (p. 267). Therefore, if the counselor is trying to convey trustworthiness and empathy through facial expressions, tone of voice and words, but the counselee misinterprets the facial expression due to the condition of the aesthetic environment, the counselor will experience increased difficulty in establishing rapport and building relationship. Conversely, if the counselor misinterprets the facial expressions of the counselee, the counselor will experience difficulty understanding the feelings of the counselee. Clearly when designing a school counseling facility, the effect of the aesthetic environment on the development of a counseling relationship should be carefully considered.

Following Maslow and Mintz’s (1956) study, Mintz (1956) explored the effects of the aesthetic environment on the examiners in the “beautiful” and “ugly” room conditions. During the Maslow and Mintz (1956) study, the examiners were unaware of the actual purpose of the study. “They were told that they were to be examiners in an experiment on facial stereotypy” (Mintz, 1956, p. 459). “The examiners thus did not know that they were testing the effects of the aesthetic surroundings, and were unaware that they were to be ‘subjects’ themselves” (Mintz, 1956, p. 460). “Therefore, the examiners’ behavior can show what happens when people are not acting as subjects in an experiment” (Mintz, 1956, p.460).

Each examiner spent three sessions in the beautiful room and three sessions in the ugly room (Mintz, 1956, p. 460). Following each session, the examiners rated their perceptions of the moods of the people in the photographs in order to establish the reliability of the tests (Mintz, 1956, p. 460). “The two examiners had higher scores (more energy and well-being) in the beautiful room” (Mintz, 1956, p. 461). Therefore, the examiners perceived the facial expressions of the people photographed differently in the different aesthetic settings.

During each session, the examiners recorded testing times (Mintz, 1956, p. 461). The testing time records indicate that, “the examiner in the ugly room finished testing before the examiner in the beautiful room twenty seven times out of the thirty-two situations: this difference was significant beyond the .001 level of confidence” (Mintz, 1956, p. 462). During the sessions, Mintz (1956) created observational notes. Mintz (1956) emphasized that he only recorded comments and behaviors that appeared relevant. “Observational notes showed that in the ugly room the examiners had such reactions as monotony, fatigue, headache, sleep, discontent, irritability, hostility, and avoidance of the room” (Mintz, 1956, p. 466). “While in the beautiful room, they had feelings of comfort, pleasure, enjoyment, importance, energy, and a desire to continue their activity” (Mintz, 1956, p. 466). Mintz (1956) “concluded that the visual-aesthetic surroundings (as represented by the beautiful and ugly room) can have significant effects upon persons exposed to them” (p. 466). Mintz (1956) suggests, “these effects are not limited either to ‘laboratory’ situations or to initial adjustments, but can be found under naturalistic circumstance of considerable duration” (p. 466).

Mintz’s 1956 follow-up study findings have important implications for the school counseling facility. If the aesthetic environment influences the amount of time spent in an environment, then the aesthetic condition of a counseling facility can influence the amount of time counselors spend with counselees. If the aesthetic environment produces reactions such as “monotony, fatigue, headache, sleep, discontent, irritability, hostility, and avoidance of the room” (Mintz, 1956, p. 466), it is conceivable that job satisfaction and performance could be greatly decreased. Furthermore, a counselor experiencing any one of these reactions would have great difficulty establishing rapport and building a relationship with counselees. Conversely, if the aesthetic environment fosters such feelings as “comfort, pleasure, enjoyment, importance, energy, and a desire to continue their activity” (Mintz, 1956, p. 466), job satisfaction and performance would increase. These feelings would assist the counselor in developing rapport and establishing a relationship with counselees. Therefore, careful attention to the aesthetic environment could improve counselor effectiveness and professionalism and decrease counselor burn out. School systems experiencing difficulty attracting and retaining counselors would be wise to consider the aesthetic conditions of their counseling facilities.

Furniture

Appropriately sized tables and soft, comfortable, and upholstered chairs would increase the comfort level of all visitors and facilitate the counseling process (Crumpacker, 1995; GCPS, 2000; Gladding, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Shertzer & Stone, 1980; Tanner, 1999). In Greenman’s (1988) Caring Spaces, Learning Places, he suggests, “child scaled furnishings, equipment, and toys allow children to behave competently and feel powerful” (p. 62). Greenman notes, “child scale is critical where we expect children to become independent and competent” (p. 62). Child sized chairs will allow students to feel like they belong in the counseling facility too. When students seek assistance from a counselor or are referred to a counselor, they often do so because of feeling incompetent, powerless, totally dependent and isolated. If the scale of the furniture in the counseling facility could promote more positive emotions, it deserves careful consideration. Since counselors also work with adults, larger chairs are necessary. In fact Greenman (1988) suggests, “ A mixture of adult and child scale is valuable for both caring and learning and minimizes the teacher [or counselor] as an outsized Gulliver in a Lilliputian world” (p. 62).

Greenman (1988) also addresses the issue of softness and comfort in furnishings. “In schools, workplaces, and other institutions, many things are far to hard, edgy, cold, and unrelenting” (Greenman, 1988, p. 74). Greenman (1988) asserts, “people like things rounded and cushioned and warm to the touch. A hard physical setting, combined with the inflexibility of institutional or group life, deadens people” (p. 74). Greenman (1988) suggests, “a soft, responsive physical environment reaches out to children. It helps children to feel more secure, enabling them to venture out and explore the world” (p. 74). Counselors constantly seek ways to help children to feel more secure and to explore possibilities. If providing soft and comfortable furnishings would help students to feel secure and have the courage to explore, they would greatly assist in the counseling process.

Greenman (1988) discusses the influence of density on students’ feelings and behaviors. “Social density refers to how many people inhabit the space. If there are too many people in a given space, we usually react negatively. Children react both by withdrawing, physically and socially, and by acting aggressively” (Greenman, 1988, p. 62). Social density is a concern for school counselors when offering small group counseling, collaborating with parents and teachers, and in the college and career room. If the counseling facility does not provide counselors with access to a room that includes enough space to meet with six to eight students and/or adults, counselors are forced to attempt to lead these groups in their offices or not provide the groups at all. If their office is small, then the aforementioned issues of social density begin to impede the counseling process. Therefore, counselors need access to rooms that are large enough to effectively offer small groups, collaborate with parents and teachers, and provide students with access to college and career materials.

Gladding (1992) notes, “the distance between counselor and client - the spatial features of the environment, or proxemics - can also affect the relationship” (p. 179). Hill (1999) suggests, “the personal to social distance [1.5 to 4.0 ft.] typically is considered appropriate for seating arrangements in helping relationships, although individuals vary in the amount of distance that feels comfortable for them personally” (p. 85). Hill (1999) suggests that individual differences in proxemic comfort levels are influenced by cultural background. Therefore, careful attention and planning of the positioning of the chairs in the counseling facility is necessary.

Haase’s (1970) study including male and female college students “examined the effect of different topics of discussion within a dyad on preference for interpersonal interaction distance within the confines of a predetermined interactional setting – counseling” (p. 234). Haase (1970) found that students preferred a distance of thirty to thirty-nine inches between counselor and client. Interestingly, Haase’s (1970) findings “do not corroborate the generally established tendency of males and females to react differentially to interaction distance” (p. 235). Haase’s (1970) findings suggest that a distance of thirty to thirty-nine inches is an average range of comfort between counselors and clients of both genders.

Sommer (1969) found that people prefer different seating arrangements based on the content of the conversation and the relationship among participants. Hill (1999) suggests that therapists “place a number of chairs in their offices and allow clients to choose where and how far away to sit from them” (p. 85). A room arrangement that offers counselees several seating options including chairs that could be easily moved would increase the comfort of counselees and counselors.

Desk placement can also affect the counseling relationship. A desk can be a barrier, physical and symbolic, to the development of a relationship (Pietrofesa, Hoffman, & Splete, 1984). Pietrofesa, Hoffman, and Splete (1984) assert that, “the counselor-client interaction should be free from such barriers as a desk. Too often a desk reflects a superior-inferior dimension, which has no place in a counseling relationship” (p. 271).

Widgery and Stackpole’s (1972) study explored the relationship between interviewer’s desk position and interviewee anxiety level. Subjects were assigned to one of two interview conditions: desk-between or no desk-between.

“In the desk-between condition, the subject and interviewer sat on opposite sides of a desk facing each other directly. In the no desk-between condition they sat in exactly the same positions relative to one another but they both sat on the same side of the desk” (Widgery & Stackpole, 1972, p. 174).

In order to evaluate anxiety level, subjects completed a questionnaire immediately following the interview (Widgery & Stackpole, 1972). Additionally, a post-test was administered to subjects to measure their perception of interviewer credibility (Widgery & Stackpole, 1972). Their results suggest that, “the interviewee’s cognitions of the desk are dependent upon level of anxiety” (Widgery & Stackpole, 1972, p. 175). “Those who are highly anxious are negatively disposed to the desk when it is imposed between him and the interviewer” (Widgery & Stackpole, 1972, p. 175).

Widgery and Stackpole (1972) suggest that, “the desk may act as a symbol of the interviewer’s higher status thus aggravating the interviewee’s initial tension” (p. 175). “Among subjects in the low-anxious groups, the desk between acts as an energizer of interviewer credibility and is not perceived as a threat” (Widgery & Stackpole, 1972, p. 175). Since many people who seek out or are referred to a counselors are experiencing higher than average levels of anxiety, counselors should carefully consider desk placement. Additionally, counselors should avoid speaking with counselees across a desk. Increased anxiety within the counseling environment would impede the development of relationship between counselor and counselee.

Windows

Castaldi (1994) notes that windows “create the pleasant and desirable feeling of transplanting part of the out-of-doors inside” (p. 260). Castaldi (1994) suggests “a person does not feel comfortable if he or she is confined to a windowless area for long periods of time” (p. 260). Castaldi (1994) asserts that natural light “creates a feeling of psychological warmth and visual comfort” (p. 261). If windows make a room seem more pleasant to those who utilize the room, they would be useful in the counseling facility to assist in the establishment of rapport and building of relationship.

Tognoli’s (1973) study explored the influence of windowless rooms and unembellished surroundings on subjects’ attitudes and retention of material. The manipulated environmental conditions were windows, embellishments on walls, and soft chairs. Subjects were escorted to an experimental room that included “two variations on each of three different experimental manipulations” (Tognoli, 1973, p. 195). While in the experimental room, subjects viewed a brief video (Tognoli, 1973). Following the video, subjects were given a retention questionnaire and were asked to “rate the room with regard to its interest, pleasantness, distractingness, and comfort” (Tognoli, 1973, p. 194).

Tognoli’s (1973) findings indicate “a rather complex relationship among the factors examined” (p. 199). Subjects found the embellished room more interesting and the room with the window more pleasant than the room without embellishment or the window (Tognoli, 1973, p. 196). Conversely, the factors of windowless and unembellished surroundings were reported on questionnaire items as providing an unpleasant and uninteresting atmosphere (Tognoli, 1973, p. 199). Even when a soft upholstered chair was provided in a windowless and unpleasant environment, the environment was rated as uncomfortable (Tognoli, 1973, p. 199). Therefore, just adding comfortable furniture to an unattractive and windowless room may not be sufficient to increase the comfort level of the users of the room. The entire design of the room including furnishings, decorations, and windows must be considered in order to increase comfort levels.

Brubacker (1998) notes that windows “give people a sense of orientation and visual contact with changing weather and with the other parts of the school, the neighborhood, and the world” (p. 48). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) acknowledge that, “windows in schools increase the costs, in terms of construction and maintenance” (p.44). They also note that, “window design contributes to a pleasant environment” (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998, p. 44). Furthermore, “most individuals, teachers and students state a preference for some use of windows” (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998, p. 44). If a window to the out-of-doors offers natural lighting, increases warmth and comfort, contributes to a pleasant environment, and provides a connection to living things, the presence of windows in a counseling facility could assist counselors in the establishment of rapport and building of relationship with counselees.

Lighting

Much research has been conducted in the area of the effects of lighting on people. Wurtman (1968) summarized research in the area of the biologic effects of illumination. “Environmental lighting exerts profound biologic effects on humans, in addition to providing the visual stimulus” (Wurtman, 1968, p. 523). Wurtman’s (1968) synthesis found that lighting affects mood, glands, metabolic functions, and serves as a regulator for biological rhythms. Based on the evidence of the biologic effects of lighting, Wurtman (1968) urges that lighting engineers utilize “natural light in modern artificial environments” (p. 529).

Rosenfeld (1977) notes, “daylight fluorescent and cool white light, the most common classroom lighting, produce a cold, detached atmosphere” (p. 169). “A classroom, like a home, should be lit so that light falls on objects in the room, such as pictures on the walls and material contained in a learning center, and not on students. This provides a pleasing effect and reduces eye strain” (Rosenfeld, 1977, p. 169). With the available evidence concerning the effects of lighting, careful consideration needs to be given to lighting choices that increase warmth and comfort levels in counseling environments.

Gysbers and Henderson (1994), suggest that individual lighting fixtures have separate controls in counseling facilities. Gladding (1991) suggests the use of soft lighting. Access to adequate and convenient electrical outlets will affect the use and placement of lamps, computers, and other electronic equipment (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998).

Color

Thompson (1973) suggests, “color is a language of the subconscious” (p. 61). Thompson (1973) notes, “how conscious behavior is shaped by this subconscious acquisition of information is not known completely” (p. 61). Thompson (1973) asserts, “enough is known, however, to warn administrators and architects to use color intelligently when it is a dominant part of the environment of any task-oriented group” (p. 61).

“Color planning for schools is essential. The constancy of color in a student’s daily life and his physical and psychological reactions to color make it imperative that teachers [and counselors] make color work for students rather than against them. Color is an essential part of the facilitating environment” (Thompson, 1973, p. 68).

When planning and designing color schemes in educational environments, Thompson (1973) suggests, “other important factors must also be considered, such as lighting, temperature, size of room, and the kind of activities the room supports” (Thompson, 1973, p. 70). Thompson (1973) asserts that when all of these factors are considered, color can enhance educational environments.

Thompson (1973) asserts, “If the human race has one common denominator, it must be the love of color. Color cuts across race, age, sex, and culture and even bends back upon time (p. 66).

“Historically, the most universally appealing colors are red, yellow, green, and blue. These colors and combinations of them are found on Egyptian artifacts, the banners of ancient Rome, the garments of medieval European nobility, in the paintings of colonial artists and in today’s supermarkets and department stores” (Thompson, 1973, p. 68).

Thompson (1973) suggests, “throughout the ages the function of color has been to adorn and to appeal to the emotions” (p. 66). Professional school counselors frequently appeal to the emotions of their counselees. If colors can be used to elicit certain emotions, careful consideration should be made regarding color choices for paint and furnishings in a counseling facility.

Thompson (1973) asserts, “whether students are black or white or shades of in-between, race seems not to be an important variable in color preferences. To everyone, yellow-red is the warmest of colors and green-blue the coldest” (p. 70). “Color preferences change with and maturity. Most authorities seem to agree that there is a positive shift in preference from warm to cool colors as a child grows older” (Thompson, 1973, p. 68-69). The preference shift could be important to consider when planning color schemes at the different academic levels. Warm colors may be more appropriate at the elementary school level. Cooler colors may be more appropriate with older students.

Red, orange, and yellow visual environments tend to illicit an increase in blood pressure and perspiration. A blue visual environment tends to illicit a decrease in blood pressure, pulse rate, and muscular tension (Castaldi, 1994; Pile, 1997: Hathaway, 1987; Plack & Shick, 1974; Thompson, 1973).

“A feeling of warmth results from the use of red, yellow, orange and rich brown in furnishings. A room can be made to create a cool feeling through a décor emphasizing blue, green, pale neutrals and white. Warm colors tend to produce increased activity while cool colors foster relaxation” (Hawkins & Lilley, 1998, p. 41).

The feeling of warmth, derived from the use of warm colors in paint and upholstery, could assist in the development of relationship between counselor and client. The feeling of relaxation and calm, resulting from the use of cool colors in paint and upholstery, could be beneficial in areas where students need to work independently.

Plack and Shick’s (1974) review of literature on the effects of color on human behavior explored the influence of color on moods and emotions. “Warm colors (i.e. those in the red-yellow area of the color spectrum) are associated with active emotional states and are described by such terms as exciting, stimulating, and happy” (Plack & Shick, 1974, p. 10). “Cool colors (i.e. those in the blue-green area of the color spectrum) are associated with a leisurely, controlled emotionality and are described by such terms as tenderness, security, and calm” (Plack & Shick, 1974, p. 10). If colors have the ability to positively influence emotions, carefully and thoughtfully chosen colors could be useful in a counseling facility.

Bordwell (1998) suggests “cool colors encourage concentration by lowering heart and respiration rates” (p. 149). “Warm colors have a diverting effect. Bright warm color schemes work well for elementary school students. The effect of a warm color is to draw visual and emotional interest outward” (Bordwell, 1998, p. 149). Drawing emotional interest outward would be useful in an individual and small group counseling environment in order to promote the discussion and exploration of personal concerns.

Bordwell (1998) suggests, “cool colors have the opposite effect…and permit better concentration”(p. 149). “Cool colors promote a student’s need to turn his or her attention inward” (Bordwell, 1998, p. 150). “Cool colors are appropriate for the secondary grades in libraries, study spaces, and areas where individual tasks are the focus” (Bordwell, 1998, p. 149). If cool colors “permit better concentration” on individual tasks, the use of cool colors in the college and career room could assist students as they search available college and career materials.

Flooring

Gysbers and Henderson (1994) and Hawkins and Lilley (1998) suggest the use of carpeted floors in the counseling facilities. Hawkins and Lilley (1998) assert that carpeting is one of the most effective design elements for soundproofing educational environments. Carpeting increases warmth and decreases noisy distractions. Landreth (1991) suggests the use of vinyl flooring in the playroom to ease clean up and allow creativity and messes. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) acknowledge that some areas in the counseling facility may require the use of vinyl flooring.

Air Quality/ Thermal Conditions

Indoor air quality affects the comfort and health of the facility users (Castaldi, 1994; Hathaway, 1987). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) note that it is “often the lack of ventilation” that causes discomfort for facility users. Adequate ventilation is necessary to remove excess heat, moisture, and odors (Castaldi, 1994). Hawkins and Lilley (1998) note the importance of providing individual temperature control due to variations in personal comfort levels. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) suggest the provision of heating and air conditioning units separate from classrooms for counselors who work during times when students are not in the building.

Organization

Gladding (1991) notes the importance of a lack of clutter in the counseling setting. Gladding (1991) suggests that a cluttered and disorderly environment can lead to counselee discomfort. Gysbers and Henderson (1994), GCPS (2000), and Schmidt (1996) suggest the use of filing cabinets, bookcases, marker and bulletin boards in the counseling facility. These elements can aid in the organization and orderliness of the counseling facility.

Privacy

“The provision of auditory and visual privacy is basic to the ethical standard that counselors will safeguard the confidentiality of the relationship” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 256). “Physical facilities which safeguard [confidentiality] also encourage the development of the counseling relationship” (Shertzer & Stone, 1974, p. 256). A dependable two-way intercom connection to the front office including a light on intercom to indicate when it is in use balances the need for security and privacy (GCPS, 2000; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Tanner, 1999). A small window should be provided in each lockable door to provide privacy and increase security for counselors and counselees (Crumpacker, 1995; GCPS, 2000; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994). Soundproof walls should be utilized in counseling areas to increase privacy and decrease distractions (GCPS, 2000; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Moore & Lackney, 1995; Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999).

Location

“Equally important to the design of a school counseling center is its location” (Schmidt, 1996, p. 53). Schmidt (1996) suggests that counseling facilities should be located in an area that offers equal access to all of the people in a school. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) assert that the counseling facilities should be located in the center of the building. Schmidt (1996) warns that traditional location of school counseling facilities near the administration offices can tarnish the image of counselors as advocates for all students. Hawkins and Lilley (1998) suggest that the counseling facilities should be located near the main entrance and administration offices. Hawkins and Lilley’s (1998) assertions that direct access to the administration offices should be avoided support Schmidt’s (1996) warning regarding the image of the school counselor.

“The location of a counseling center should enhance its visibility, facilitate communication between all groups in the school, and invite people to enter and use its facilities” (Schmidt, 1996). Borders and Dury (1992) suggest that the location of counseling facilities should maintain confidentiality and maximize student access. Clearly, the location of the counseling facility can affect the perception of the users of the facility. Facility planers and architects should carefully balance the need of school counselors to be near the administrators and student records with the need to be accessible to the students, teachers, and parents.

Conclusions

The aforementioned design elements must be considered as a whole. The individual elements interact with one another to create the “feel” of the environment. In fact, Thompson notes, “when planning the color schemes of classrooms, other important factors must also be considered, such as lighting, temperature, size of room, and the kind of activities the room supports” (Thompson, 1973, p. 70). Castaldi (1994) asserts, “it is generally agreed among educators that human comfort is conducive to effectual learning. Consequently, a school should feature comfortable lighting, humidity and temperatures, seating colors, and ventilation, and acoustical environments” (p. 233). Shertzer and Stone (1974) suggest, “the general appearance of a counseling facility depends upon color, décor, lighting, arrangement of equipment and furnishings, and noise control” (p. 255).

Shertzer and Stone (1974) assert, “ by attention to features such as these tensions are eased, feelings of warmth and comfort are engendered, and rapport and contact are encouraged. Needless to say, the same features which lead to an aesthetically pleasing environment for the counselee enable the counselor to function better” (p. 255).

While these design elements are important individually, they will not produce a comfortable environment in isolation.

Thompson (1973) asserts, “teachers must become sensitive to the total learning environment. Surely a classroom is at least as important as a supermarket, a dentist’s waiting room, or a theater lounge. Yet, these places are decorated in such a way that they support and facilitate specific kinds of activity. Classrooms deserve at least the same attention” (Thompson, 1973, p. 76).

Thompson made this plea directly to teachers but it also applies to school counselors. The counseling facilities should be decorated in a way that supports and facilitates the therapeutic relationship. Careful attention to aesthetics, furnishings, windows, lighting, paint color, flooring, air quality, thermal conditions, organization, privacy, and location can lead to an environment that supports and facilitates therapeutic relationships between school counselors and counselees. Unfortunately, like most teachers, school counselors are rarely given the opportunity to offer input into the planning and design of counseling facilities.

Summary

The review of the literature has included previous research relevant to this study. This literature review has shown that there are many design elements that could contribute to or impede the effectiveness of professional school counselors. Ideally, elementary school counseling facilities would include a private office for each counselor, a conference room, playroom, reception area, and storage area. The middle/junior high and high school counseling facilities would include a private office for each counselor, a conference room, reception area, storage area, and a college/career center. At all academic levels, the counseling offices should include a private telephone line, adequate and convenient electrical outlets, computer, printer, a professional desk, and executive chair.

Attention to aesthetics in the counseling facility can improve the comfort level of counselees. Ideally, the school counseling facilities would include comfortable and appropriately sized guest furniture. Windows to the outdoors would be used to provide natural lighting. Individual incandescent lighting fixtures could be used to provide indirect light. Warm paint colors would be used in reception areas, conference rooms, playrooms and counselors’ offices. Cool paint colors would be used in career and college centers. Carpeting would be used in the counseling facility to increase warmth and decrease noise. Walls would be soundproof for privacy. Personal thermostat controls would allow for individual comfort levels. Heating and air conditioning systems would offer appropriate ventilation in order to remove excess heat, moisture, and odors. Storage rooms, filing cabinets, and bookcases would be provided for organization. Finally, the counseling facility would be located in a central area of the building. Based on the literature review, attention to these aesthetic details could result in an environment that supports and facilitates therapeutic relationships between school counselors and counselees.

Sanoff (1992) suggests, “school buildings are said to be made for people, yet ironically those who actually occupy or otherwise use school buildings are seldom able to influence the way in which they are designed” (p. 1). Sanoff asserts, “nearly all the important decisions [about school building design] are based on factors that have very little to do with the way people use school buildings or the way school buildings affect their users” (p. 1). The lack of communication between facility designers and users leads to facilities that do not optimally facilitate the activities of the users.

Crumpacker (1995) spends time in schools studying the needs of the inhabitants in order to assist architects and planners in developing ideal facilities. She explains, “I watch the behavior patterns and listen to the stories of people as they live and work at school. After all, they are the experts on their own environments” (Crumpacker, 1995, p. 32). This study presumes that professional school counselors are “experts on their own environments” and that they have the most accurate information about their facility needs. Based on this presumption, a survey was constructed to inquire about their perceptions of their facility needs. The items on the survey were derived from the design elements discussed in the literature review. Additionally, the review of the literature provided a foundation for the investigation of the research questions contained in this study.

Chapter 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENTDATIONS

Summary

This study examined the facility needs of elementary, middle/junior high, and high school counselors and included a comprehensive survey of elementary, middle/junior high, and high school counselors regarding their perceptions about their actual and ideal counseling facilities. Chapter one described the problem, the purpose of the study, the significance of the study, and the definition of terms. Additionally, chapter one addressed the constraints and assumptions of the study. In chapter two, a review of the literature provided the foundation for the study and the design of the School Counseling Facility Survey. Chapter three described the collection of the data, the design of the School Counseling Facility Survey, and the procedures for analyzing the data that were utilized in the study. The presentation of the data and analysis of the data were included in chapter four. This chapter will summarize the significant findings of the study and offer suggestions for further research.

Conclusions

Previous research offered few descriptions of the specific design standards of facilities that elementary, middle/junior high, and high school counselors need in order to fulfill the variety of roles that they provide to students, parents, teachers and administrators (Gysbers & Henderson 1994, Schmidt 1996). While Gysbers’ &

140

Henderson’s (1994) and Schmidt’s (1994) descriptions of professional school counseling facilities are helpful, their descriptions are not complete and are not based upon the perceptions of practicing professional school counselors. Sannoff (1994) asserts, “school buildings are said to be made for people, yet ironically, those who actually occupy or otherwise use school buildings are seldom able to influence the way in which they are designed” (p. 1). Gysbers and Henderson (1994) note, “attention to the type and use of physical space and equipment of a comprehensive guidance program is often neglected” (p. 224).

The present study assumed that the users of a facility have expertise to offer regarding their facility needs. This study offered the professional school counselors of Georgia an opportunity to express their opinions about their facility needs. Specifically, this study explored the perceptions of one hundred and forty three elementary, middle/junior high, and high school counselors concerning the current state of counseling facilities in Georgia and the “ideal” counseling facilities of the future.

Actual Design Items

The present study utilized crosstabs and Pearson’s contingency coefficient to determine if significant relationships existed between the counselors’ responses to the actual (or current) facility items. Three demographic variables were included in this portion of the study: (a) the age of the building, (b) the academic level of the students served in the building, and (c) the type of community that the building was located with in. Many significant relationships were found among the academic level of the students served groups and the reception area and career/college room design items. Few significant relationships were found among the other variables.

Age of the Building

The data suggest that newer buildings were more likely to have soft and comfortable upholstered chairs, a desk and chair in the office that was appropriate for a professional counselor, adequate and convenient electrical outlets, and adequate ventilation in the counselors’ offices than older buildings. Newer buildings were more likely to have soft and comfortable upholstered chairs and adequate and convenient electrical outlets in the conference room than buildings in the older age ranges. Newer buildings were more likely than older buildings to include a reception area for students and parents to wait for appointments with counselors, a window in the door to the reception area, a glass wall from the reception area to the hallway, adequate and convenient electrical outlets, and soft and comfortable upholstered chairs in the counselors’ reception areas than older buildings. Newer buildings were more likely to have computer stations in the career/college room than older buildings.

In two instances, the buildings in the six to fifteen year old range were more likely than buildings in any of the other age ranges to have a significant relationship with the design items. The data suggest that buildings in the six to fifteen year old range were more likely to have lockable doors in the reception area than buildings in the other age ranges. Buildings in the six to fifteen year old range were more likely than buildings in the other age ranges to have incandescent lamp lighting in the career/college room.

Few significant relationships were found among the age of the building and the actual design items. The design items of soft and comfortable upholstered chairs and adequate and convenient electrical outlets were consistently more likely to be found in newer buildings than older buildings. Where significant relationships were identified, the data tended to indicate that newer buildings were more likely than older buildings to include the design items.

Satisfaction Level with their Current Facility

Counselors who rated themselves as extremely or very satisfied with their current facility were more likely than less satisfied counselors to have an office large enough for small groups, appropriately sized tables and chairs in the counselors’ offices, soft and comfortable upholstered chairs in the counselors’ offices, marker boards counselors’ offices, adequate and convenient electrical outlets counselors’ offices. Counselors who rated themselves as extremely satisfied, very satisfied, or satisfied were more likely to have adequate and convenient electrical outlets in the conference room than less satisfied counselors. Counselors who rated themselves as extremely or very satisfied with their current facility were more likely than less satisfied counselors to have facilities that included a window in the door and soundproof walls for privacy in the reception area.

Counselors who rated themselves as extremely satisfied or very satisfied were more likely than less satisfied counselors to have counseling facilities that were located in a central area of the building, counseling facilities in locations that enhanced the visibility of the counseling program, and counseling facilities in locations that invited people to enter and utilize services. Counselors in the very satisfied and extremely satisfied groups were more likely to have age appropriate shelving for storage and display of art materials and toys in playrooms.

Few significant relationships were found among the satisfaction level with the current facility and the actual design items. Where significant relationships were identified, the data tended to indicate that counselors who were very satisfied or extremely satisfied with their current facility were more likely than less satisfied counselors to have facilities that included the design items.

Satisfaction Level with their Current Job

Counselors who rated themselves as satisfied or extremely satisfied with their current counseling jobs were more likely to have incandescent lamps with individual controls in the counselors’ offices. Counselors who rated themselves as extremely satisfied or very satisfied with their current job were more likely to have appropriately sized tables and chairs and soft and comfortable upholstered chairs in the conference room than less satisfied counselors. Counselors who rated themselves as extremely satisfied with their current job were more likely than less satisfied counselors to have facilities that included a glass wall from the reception area to the hallway, a private entrance/exit from the outdoors to the reception areas, and a two-way intercom connection from the reception areas to the front office. Counselors who rated themselves as very satisfied or extremely satisfied were more likely than counselors who rated themselves as less satisfied with their current job to have counseling facilities that were located in a central area of the building.

Few significant relationships were found among level of satisfaction with their current job and the actual design items. Where significant relationships were identified, the data tended to indicate that counselors who were more satisfied with their current job were more likely than less satisfied counselors to have facilities that included the design items.

Academic Level of the Students Served

The data suggest that buildings serving elementary school students were less likely than buildings serving middle/jr. high or high school students to have soft and comfortable upholstered chairs in the counselors’ offices. Buildings serving middle/junior high school students were less likely to include bulletin boards and to have adequate ventilation in the counselors’ offices than buildings serving elementary or high school students. Buildings serving high school students were more likely to include a heating and air conditioning system for counselors’ offices separate from the classrooms than buildings serving elementary and middle/junior high students. Counseling offices were very similar across the level of the students served.

Counseling facilities in buildings serving middle/junior high students and high school students were more likely to have a conference room to meet with small groups than buildings serving elementary school students. Counseling facilities in buildings serving middle/junior high school students and high school students were more likely to have a conference room near or adjoining counseling offices, appropriately sized tables and chairs, soft and comfortable upholstered chairs, carpeted floors, and adequate ventilation that removed excess heat, moisture, and odors from the conference room than counseling facilities in buildings serving elementary students.

Buildings serving high school students were more likely to have a lockable door to the storage area. Buildings serving high school students were more likely to include counseling facilities that were located near the records storage room than buildings serving newer students.

The data tended to indicate that counseling offices were very similar across the level of the students served. Middle/junior high and high school counseling facilities were more likely to include the conference room design items than elementary school counseling facilities. High school counselors were more likely to have all of the design items in the reception areas than counselors at any other level.

Community Location

Few significant relationships were found among the type of community in which the buildings were located groups and the design items. Buildings located in rural areas were more likely to have windows to the outdoors in the counselors’ offices than buildings located in suburban areas. Buildings located in suburban areas were more likely to have adequate and convenient electrical outlets in the counselors’ offices than buildings located in urban or rural areas. Facilities located in urban areas were most likely to include a window to the outdoors in the career/college rooms.

Ideal Design Items

The present study utilized the one way analysis of variance to determine if significant differences existed among the counselors’ responses to the ideal facility items. Five demographic variables were included in this portion of the study: (a) the age of the building, (b) the academic level of the students served in the building, (c) the type of community that the building was located with in, (d) their level of satisfaction with their current facility, and (e) their level of satisfaction with their current job.

Several statistically significant differences were found among the level of the counseling facility groups and the amount of importance they placed on the design items. Elementary school counselors and middle/jr. high school counselors rated an office large enough for small groups as more important than high school counselors. Middle/jr. high school counselors rated a two-way intercom connection from counselors’ offices to front office as more important than high school counselors. Middle/jr. high school counselors rated a two-way intercom connection from the conference room to the front office as more important than high school counselors. Middle/jr. high school counselors rated soundproof walls for privacy in the conference room as more important than high school counselors. High school counselors rated a private entrance/exit from the outdoors to the reception area as more important than elementary school counselors.

Rank Ordering of Mean Responses

In order to prioritize the counselors’ perceived importance of the ideal design items, the means of the counselors’ responses were ranked from high to low (see Appendix AM, Tables 1 - 8). The responses were divided by level: elementary, middle/jr. high, and high school counselors. Additionally, the counselors’ responses were divided by room: office, conference, reception, storage, location, playroom, and career/college. These divisions allow for the comparison of the perceived importance of the ideal design items by room across the groups.

With the exception of the location of the facility within the building scale, the first item on each of the other scales inquired about the counselors’ perceived importance of the room or area items. For example, the first item on the office scale was a private office for each counselor (see Appendix AM, Table 1). Elementary and high school counselors rated a private office as their most important room. Elementary school counselors rated a storage area second, a conference room third, a playroom fourth, and a reception area as least important in their list of rooms. Only elementary school counselors responded to the playroom items. Therefore, there is no way to compare the elementary school counselors’ responses to the playroom items to counselors’ responses at other levels.

Middle school counselors rated a conference room first, a private office second, a reception area third, a storage area fourth, and a career/college room as least important in their list of rooms. High school counselors rated a conference room second, a career/college room third, a reception area fourth, and a storage area as least important in their list of rooms. It is interesting to note that middle/jr. high school counselors rated a career/college room as least important and high school counselors rated a career/college room as third. This discrepancy indicates that architects and facility planners may consider placing more emphasis on career/college rooms in high school counseling facilities than in middle school counseling facilities.

There were many similarities across elementary, middle/jr. high, and high school counselors in their rankings of the office items (see Appendix AM, Table 1). All of the level groups included a private office, a computer and printer, and filing cabinets in their top five office items. Elementary and middle/jr. high school counselors included an office large enough for small groups in their top five office items. For high school counselors, a private telephone line in the office of each counselor was ranked seventh. Elementary and high school counselors included a private telephone line in the office of each counselor in their top five office items. For middle/jr. high school counselors, a private telephone line in the office of each counselor was ranked seventh. Middle/jr. high school counselors included soundproof walls for privacy in their top five office items. For elementary school counselors, soundproof walls were ranked eighth. For high school counselors, soundproof walls were ranked sixth. High school counselors included bookcases in their top five office items. For elementary and middle/jr. high school counselors, bookcases were ranked sixth. There was a high level of agreement in the importance of the counselors’ office design items across the level groups.

There were many similarities across elementary, middle/jr. high, and high school counselors in their rankings of the conference room items (see Appendix AM, Table 2). All of the level groups included a conference room to meet with small groups, near or adjoining the counseling offices, appropriately sized tables and chairs, and soundproof walls for privacy in their top five conference room items. Elementary school counselors included a two-way intercom connection from the conference room to the front office in their top five. Middle school counselors rated a two-way intercom connection as sixth and high school counselors rated it fourteenth. High school counselors did not place as much importance on a two-way intercom connection as elementary or middle/jr. high school counselors.

Middle/jr. high school counselors included adequate and convenient electrical outlets in the conference room in their top five most important items. High school counselors rated adequate and convenient electrical outlets in the conference room sixth and elementary school counselors rated them eighth. High school counselors included soft and comfortable upholstered chairs in the conference room in their top five. Middle/jr. high school counselors rated soft and comfortable upholstered chairs in the conference room eighth and elementary school counselors rated them eleventh. Clearly, elementary school counselors did not place as much importance on soft and comfortable upholstered chairs in the conference room as high school counselors.

The reception area items offered the most variety across the elementary, middle/jr. high, and high school counselors’ responses (see Appendix AM, Table 3). The only item that was included in all three levels top five design items was a reception area for students and parents to wait for appointments. Elementary and middle/jr. high school counselors also included soundproof walls for privacy, appropriately sized tables and chairs, and soft and comfortable upholstered chairs. Middle/jr. high and high school counselors included a reception area adjoining to the counselors’ offices in their top five. Elementary school counselors rated a reception area adjoining to the counselors’ offices sixth.

Elementary and high school counselors included a lockable door in their top five reception area items. Middle school counselors rated a lockable door eighth in their reception area item ranking. High school counselors included a private entrance/exit from the outdoors to the reception area and a window in the door to the reception area in their top five reception area items. Middle/jr. high school counselors rated a private entrance/exit from the outdoors to the reception area thirteenth in their ranking of the importance of the design items, elementary school counselors rated a private entrance/exit as seventeenth in their list. High school counselors included a window in the door to the reception area in their top five reception area design items. Middle/jr. high school counselors rated a window in the door to the reception area as sixth, and elementary school counselors rated it twelfth.

The discrepancies in the rankings of the reception area items suggest that counselors at the separate levels have varying priorities for design items in the reception area. An awareness of the differing priorities in reception area design items at each level would be important when designing effective counseling facilities.

The counselors’ rankings of the storage area items were very similar across all of the levels (see Appendix AM, Table 4). A lockable door to the storage area was more highly ranked in the middle/jr. high and high school counselors’ list than in the elementary school counselors’ list. Shelving in the storage area was ranked second in the elementary and high school counselors list and third in the middle school counselors’ list.

The counselors’ rankings of the location items were also very similar across all of the levels (see Appendix AM, Table 5). All of the counseling levels rated the location item the counseling facility location invites people to enter and utilize services as the most important item on this scale. All of the counseling levels rated “the counseling facility located near the administrative offices” as the least important of the location items.

Middle/jr. high and high school counselors ranked the same career/college room items in their top five most important items (see Appendix AM, Table 8). Middle/jr. high and high school counselors included a career/college room for students to explore materials and a career/college room adjoining the counseling offices and reception areas in their top five career/college room design items. Middle/jr. high and high school counselors also included computer stations for student use, appropriately sized tables and chairs, and shelving for storage and display in the career/college room in their top five career/college room design items.

It is important to note that all of the means for the design items were above 3.0. This indicates that the counselors perceived that all of the design items were important in an ideal counseling facility. Therefore, an ideal counseling facility would include all of the design items in the School Counseling Facility Survey.

Due to budget constraints, school systems may not be able to afford all of the design items. Architects, facility planners, and school boards could utilize these ranked means in order to prioritize design items to be included into new and renovated counseling facilities. Counseling facilities designed around the needs of school counselors will produce more effective school counseling facilities.

Open-Ended Responses

The open-ended responses offered useful suggestions for additional counseling facility design items. Based on the open-ended responses, it is clear that counselors are in need of access to a myriad of technological devices. Counselors are also in need of areas large enough that they can provide small group guidance as well as facilitate meetings with parents and teachers.

Counselors suggested that counseling facilities should include or be located near restrooms. Counselors also suggested that counseling facilities should be located in a quiet and private area near the students and away from the administrative offices. Additionally, counselors suggested that counseling facilities should be dedicated to counselor use. Counselors indicated that their facility impacted the services that they were able to provide to students. Counselors asserted that architects, school facility planners, and school boards should communicate with counselors regarding their facility needs when designing counseling facilities.

This study supported the assimilation of previous literature regarding the facility needs of school counselors. Ideally, elementary school counseling facilities would include a private office for each counselor, a conference room, reception area, storage area (Borders & Dury, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; GCPS, 2000; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996), and a playroom (Landreth, 1991, Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999). The middle/junior high and high school counseling facilities would include a private office for each counselor, a conference room, reception area, storage area (Borders & Dury, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; GCPS, 2000; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996), and a college/career center (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994).

Each office should be large enough to hold groups of six to eight people (GCPS, 2000). The office should include a private telephone line for consultation and coordination (Borders & Dury, 1992; GCPS, 2000; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999). A computer with printer would be useful for coordination, accountability and planning activities (GCPS, 2000; Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999). Gysbers and Henderson (1994) and the Gwinnett County Public Schools Educational Specifications (2000) note the importance of a professional desk and executive chair in each counselor’s office.

In the conference room, counselors’ could meet with small groups of students, parents, and teachers (Borders & Dury 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996). The reception area would offer students, parents, and teachers a place to wait for appointments and peruse guidance materials (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996). A storage room could be used for organization and storage of materials and equipment (Borders & Dury 1992; Bordwell, 1998; Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Hawkins & Lilley, 1998; Schmidt, 1996).

A playroom would be a useful addition to an elementary counseling program and could be used to provide counseling with toys and art materials for individuals and small groups of students (Landreth, 1991; Schmidt, 1996; Tanner, 1999). The college/career room at the middle/junior high and high school levels “can bring together available guidance information and exploration resources and make them easily accessible to students” (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994, p. 226). The participating school counselors responses to the School Counseling Facility Survey indicated that all of the design items mentioned in the previous research were important in school counseling facilities.

This study also supported the previous literature regarding the importance of aesthetic design items in educational buildings and therapeutic facilities. Shertzer and Stone (1974) suggest, “the general appearance of a counseling facility depends upon color, décor, lighting, arrangement of equipment and furnishings, and noise control” (p. 255).

“ By attention to features such as these tensions are eased, feelings of warmth and comfort are engendered, and rapport and contact are encouraged. Needless to say, the same features which lead to an aesthetically pleasing environment for the counselee enable the counselor to function better” (Shertzer and Stone, 1974, p. 255).

The responses of the participating school counselors indicate that careful attention to aesthetics, furnishings, windows, lighting, paint color, flooring, air quality, thermal conditions, organization, privacy, and location is important in a school counseling facility.

Recommendations

“Counseling can occur almost anywhere, but some physical settings

help promote the process better than others” (Gladding, 1992, p. 178).

General Recommendations

The school counselors who work in school counseling facilities daily have expertise to offer in the design of effective school counseling facilities. Many architects, facility planners, and school planners do not take the time required to talk to their school counselors in order to better understand their facility needs. Therefore, it is recommended that architects, facility planners, and school boards utilize the results of this study to design more effective school counseling facilities. The ranking of the means of the counselors’ responses could be especially helpful when allocating limited resources for counseling facilities.

Since the respondents were limited to school counselors working in the state of Georgia, it is recommended that this study be extended to school counselors in other states in order to explore the perceptions of school counselors regarding their facility needs nationwide. Based upon the responses to the open-ended statements, additional technology design items and items regarding restroom access should be included in future surveys. A study regarding the perceptions of students, and parents needs in a school counseling facility is necessary in order to increase the knowledge base regarding the ideal design of school counseling facilities.

Architectural Design / Recommendations

School counselors’ responses to the School Counseling Facility Survey indicated that all of the items included on the survey were important in school counseling facilities. Important spaces in school counseling facilities include: a private office for each counselor, conference room, reception area, storage area, playroom (for elementary), and career/college room (for middle/jr. high or high). Specific items that would be important to include in each space are listed in the sets of Design Standards for School Counseling Facilities (see Tables 5.1 – 5.5). Additionally, counselors’ perceptions of important location issues are offered (see Table 5.5). These design standards are expressed visually in the architectural designs as shown in Tables 5.6 and 5.7.
Table 5.1

School Counseling Facilities

Design Standards

Important Counselor Office Items

Private office for each counselor

Office large enough for small groups Computer and printer in office

Filing cabinets

Computer and printer

Private telephone line

Book cases

Lockable door

Soundproof walls for privacy

Two-way intercom connection from counselor's office to front office

Appropriately sized tables and chairs

Desk and chair in office appropriate for professional counselor

Adequate and convenient electrical outlets

Personal thermostat control

Ventilation that removes excess heat, moisture, & odors

Heating and air conditioning system for office separate from classrooms

Window in door

Warm paint color

Window to outdoors

Carpeted floors

Soft and comfortable upholstered chairs

Light on intercom in office to indicate when in use

Incandescent lamps with individual controls

Bulletin boards

Marker boards

Table 5.2

School Counseling Facilities

Design Standards

Important Conference Room Items

Conference room large enough to meet with small groups

Appropriately sized tables and chair

Conference room near or adjoining counseling offices

Soundproof walls for privacy

Two-way intercom connection from conference room to front office

Lockable door

Personal thermostat control

Adequate and convenient electrical outlets

Window in door

Ventilation that removes excess heat, moisture, and odors

Soft and comfortable upholstered chairs

Warm color of paint on walls

Carpeted floors

Light on intercom in conference room to indicate when in use

Window to outdoors

Marker boards

Projection screen

Bulletin boards

Incandescent lamp lighting with individual controls

Table 5.3

School Counseling Facilities

Design Standards

Important Reception Area Items

Reception area for students and parents to wait for appointments

Soundproof walls for privacy

Appropriately sized tables and chairs

Soft and comfortable upholstered chairs in reception area

Lockable door in reception area

Reception area adjoining to counseling offices

Two way intercom connection from reception area to front office

Adequate and convenient electrical outlets

Personal thermostat control

Ventilation that removes excess heat, moisture, and odors

Window in door

Carpeted floors

Cool color of paint on walls

Professional desk and chair

Light on intercom in reception area to indicate when in use

Incandescent lamp lighting with individual controls

Private entrance/exit from outdoors

Bulletin boards

Glass wall from reception area to hallway

Table 5.4

School Counseling Facilities

Design Standards

Important Storage Area Items

Storage area for materials and equipment

Shelving

Lockable door

Important Playroom Items – Elementary only

Playroom to meet with individuals and small groups of students

Appropriately sized tables and chairs

Playroom near or adjoining to counseling offices

Age appropriate shelves for storage of art materials and toys

Lockable door

Soundproof walls for privacy

Two way intercom connection from playroom to front office

Window in door

Personal thermostat control

Age appropriate computer station

Adequate and convenient electrical outlets

Ventilation that removes excess heat, moisture, and odors

Warm color of paint on walls

Incandescent lamp lighting with individual controls

Light on intercom in playroom to indicate when in use

Sink

Window to outdoors

Vinyl flooring

Table 5.5

School Counseling Facilities

Design Standards

Important Career & College Room Items – Middle & High only

Career/College room for students to explore materials

Computer stations for student use

Appropriately sized tables and chairs

Shelving for storage and display

Career/College room adjoining counseling offices and reception area

Lockable door

Adequate and convenient electrical outlets

Ventilation that removes excess heat, moisture, and odors

Marker boards

Bulletin boards

Soundproof walls for privacy

Personal thermostat control

Two way intercom connection from the career/college room to front office

Window in door

Cool color of paint on walls

Carpeted floors

Incandescent lamp lighting with individual controls

Light on intercom in career/college room to indicate when in use

Window to outdoors

Important Location Issues

Counseling facility location invites people to enter and utilize services

Counseling facility location enhances visibility of the counseling program

Counseling facility located in central area of the building

Counseling facility located near records storage room

Counseling facility located near administrative offices

References

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razavieh, A. (1990). Introduction to research in education (4^th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.

Borders, L. D., & Dury, S. M. (1992). Comprehensive school counseling programs: A review for policymakers and practitioners. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70, 487-498.

Bordwell, R. (1998). Color and Light. In Brubaker, C. W., Planning and designing schools. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Brubaker, C. W. (1998). Planning and designing schools. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Campbell, C. A., & Dahir, C. A. (1997). The national standards for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association.

Castaldi, B. (1994). Educational facilities: Planning, modernization, and management (4^th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Crumpacker, S. S. (1995). Using cultural information to create schools that work. In A. Meek (Ed.), Designing places for learning, 31 – 42. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Dagley, J. C. (1987). A new look at developmental guidance: The hearthstone of school counseling. The School Counselor, 35(2), 102-109.

Education Trust (1996). National Initiative to Transform School Counseling . [Brochure]. Washington, DC: Author.

Fisher, D. L., & Fraser, B. J. (1992). Validity and use of work environment scale and school-level environment questionnaire. The Study of Learning Environments, 5, 114-129.

Gladding, S. T. (1992). Counseling: A comprehensive profession (2^nd ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan.

Gwinnett County Public Schools (2000). Educational Specifications. Lawrenceville, GA: GCPS.

Greenman, J. (1988). Caring spaces, learning places: Children’s environments that work. Redmond, WA: Exchange Press Inc.

Gysbers, N., & Henderson, P. (1994). Developing and managing your school guidance program (2^nd ed.). Minneapolis, MN: Educational Media Corporation.

Haase, R. F. (1970). The relationship of sex and instructional setting to the regulation of interpersonal interaction distance in a counseling analogue. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 17, 233-236.

Haase, R. F., & DiMattia, D. J. (1976). Spatial environments and verbal conditioning in a quasi-counseling interview. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 23, 414-421.

Hathaway, W. E. (1987). Light, color & air quality: Important elements of the learning environments? Education Canada, Fall, 35 – 41.

Hawkins, H. L., & Lilley, H. E. (1998). Guide for school facility appraisal. Phoenix, AZ: The Council of Educational Facility Planners, International.

Hayes, R. L., Dagley, J. C., & Horne, A. M. (1996). Restructuring school counselor education: Work in progress. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 378-384.

Landreth, G. L. (1991). Play therapy: The art of the relationship. Bristol, PA: Accelerated Development.

Maslow, A. H., & Mintz, N. L. (1956). Effects of esthetic surroundings: Initial effects of three esthetic conditions upon perceiving “energy” and “well-being” in faces. The Journal of Psychology, 41, 247-254.

Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent messages. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. As cited in Gladding, S. T. (1992). Counseling: A comprehensive profession (2^nd ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan.

Mintz, N. L. (1956). Effects of esthetic surroundings: Prolonged and repeated experience in a “beautiful” and an “ugly” room. The Journal of Psychology, 41, 459-466.

Moore, G. T., & Lackney, J. A. (1995). Design patterns for American schools: Responding to the reform movement. In A. Meek (Ed.), Designing places for learning, 11 – 22. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Muro, J. J., & Kottman, T. (1995). Guidance and counseling in the elementary and middle schools. Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark.

Myrick, R. D. (1993). Developmental guidance and counseling: A practical approach (2^nd ed.). Minneapolis, MN: Educational Media Corporation.

Paisley, P. O. (2001). Maintaining and enhancing the developmental focus in school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, (4)4, 271-278.

Paisley, P. O. (1999). The next evolution in school counselor practice and preparation: A national initiative, local example, and personal reflection. The Journal of the Pennsylvania Counseling Association, (1)1, 7-15.

Paisley, P. O., & Borders, L. D. (1995). School counseling: An evolving specialty. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 150-153.

Paisley, P. O., & Hubbard, G. T. (1994). Developmental school counseling programs: From theory to practice. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Pietrofesa, J. J., Hoffman, A., & Splete, H. H. (1984). Counseling: An introduction (2^nd ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Pile, J. F. (1997). Color in interior design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Plack, J. J., & Shick, J. (1974). The effects of color on human behavior. Journal of the Association for the Study of Perception, 9(1), p. 4-16.

Rosenfeld, L. B. (1977). Setting the stage for Learning. Theory into practice, 16(3), 167 – 173.

Sanoff, H. (1992). School Design. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Schmidt, J. J. (1996). Counseling in schools: Essential services and comprehensive programs (2^nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Shertzer, B., & Stone, S. C. (1974). Fundamentals of counseling (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Sielski, L. M. (1979). Understanding body language. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 57, 238-242.

Sommer, R. (1969). Personal space: The behavioral basis of design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Tanner, C. K. (1999). The school design assessment scale: Validity, reliability, and weights. Paper presented at Annual Conference of the Council of Educational Facility Planners, International, Baltimore, MD.

Thompson, J. J. (1973). Beyond words: Nonverbal communication in the classroom. New York, NY: Citation Press.

Tognoli, J. (1973). The effects of windowless rooms and unembellished surroundings on attitudes and retention. Environments and Behavior, 5, 191-201.

Vogt, W. P. (1998). Dictionary of statistics & methodology: A nontechnical guide for the social sciences. 2^nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Widgery, R., & Stackpole, C. (1972). Desk position, interviewer credibility: An example of cognitive balance in a dyad. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 19(3), 173-177.

Wurtman, R. (1968). Biological implications of artificial illumination. Illuminating Engineering Society Journal, 63, 523-529.