By

Melissa Smith

SDPL

August 2000

Wiles, J.W. (1978). Reassessing personal space in classroom. The Southern Journal of Educational Research, 12, (1), 111-114.

Wiles reviews the personal space of various social areas in comparison with that of schools. He determines that there is a relationship between the space allocated and the anticipated time of the event, with the exception of schools. In the design of places such as telephone booths, which is considered an event requiring very little time, very little space is provided. Homes for the elderly housed by the federal government require one hundred and eight square feet per person. Prisoners in jail cells have forty-eight square feet. Fall out shelters range from four to ten square feet. The amount of time spent on the event has a direct correlation to the amount of space provided in most areas.

Schools do not seem to follow this school of thought. Students spend six to seven hours a day at school. Wiles is of the opinion that designers have given very little thought to the amount of space children need in the classroom. At the time this article was written, Wiles tells us that public classrooms were 1200 square feet. This square footage is reduced dramatically to around 661 square feet after adding furniture, storage, desks, and pathways. Wiles recommends that if the classroom teacher is to attempt a diverse curriculum, an individualized approach to instruction, or a more personal pattern of interaction with students, these efforts may be sabotaged prematurely by the subtle variable of personal space. Personal space has a direct impact on learning, and designers must take this into consideration when designing schools.

Black, C.A. (1993). Solitary pursuits: Supporting children’s privacy needs in early childhood settings. Young Children, 49, (1), 60-64.

Schools hold the responsibility of providing for students’ various needs. Students’ needs range from physical to emotional. One need identified by Black is that of privacy. In the classroom setting students will need times for group interaction, but will need quiet times alone as well. This need will vary with the students in the classroom. Making space and allowances for that quiet time at any point during the day is helpful to many students. Structuring a learning environment that is conducive to various needs is essential.

One issue that occurs in the classroom setting can be overcrowding. Overcrowding can occur if a great deal of classroom time is spent on large group activities or if the amount of materials provided is insufficient. Classroom teachers should be aware of these causes and structure activities in a flexible, responsive way.

Black recommends that not only should teachers be aware of student needs, but also students should be taught how to meet their own needs. It is important to emphasize that expressing needs and being alone is necessary and profitable. Often students do not know how to create those boundaries necessary to define personal space. Black states that "The classroom environment should allow for social interaction and privacy."

An environment that meets the needs of students is one with many facets. This environment provides times for group interaction and privacy. Through the use of learning centers, privacy booths, comfy corners, secret gardens, and many more, teachers can meet needs in the area of personal space and privacy.

Brody, G.H. (1975). The effects of modeling and classroom organization on the personal space of third and fourth grade children. American Educational Research Journal, 12, (2), 157 — 168.

This study compared the personal space requirements of third and fourth grade students of a traditional classroom environment to those of an open classroom environment. The response by the students from a traditional classroom was quite different from those who had experiences an open classroom setting.

The students were evaluated based on the placement of silhouette figures when asked about a best friend, not best friend, bully, teacher and visitor. Students from the traditional classroom had not been exposed to an environment that allowed and promoted interactions between students. The results were a direct correlation to the emotional ties to the person. Students rated a lower personal space distance requirement for a best friend. The largest area for personal space indicated by students was that required when encountering a bully.

One significant difference was that response to a visitor. Students from the open classroom required less personal space with a visitor. This may be due to the encouragement that program extends to parents and volunteers. Students are exposed to visitors on a regular basis. In addition, third graders indicated a need for more personal space than the fourth graders.

Eaton, S., Snook-Hill, M., & Fuchs, L. (1997). Personal space preference among adolescents with and without visual disabilities. RE:view, 29, (1), 7- 15.

This study focused on personal space preferences for students with visual disabilities. A simulation was set up in which students, unaware of the purpose, were observed as they entered a classroom and approached the instructor. There were 26 volunteer students. Fifty percent were visually disabled and fifty percent had normal vision. The purpose was to determine if nonverbal cues were a strong factor in personal space allowances. The floor and walls were marked with colored tape to allow the observer to record measurements. The test was administered twice. The instructor was a female, but did not know any of the students.

The results were not surprising. The personal space preferences increased with the second trial. Males with normal vision had a larger personal space preference ( 3.5 feet) than the male students with visual disabilities (1.75 feet). It is speculated that the students with visual disabilities may not have been aware of nonverbal signals. On the contrary, the female students in both groups demonstrated personal space preferences that were similar (approximately 3 feet).

Although the sample size was small, the gender, setting, and social status were well controlled. The authors recommend that in future studies the sample group should remain above twenty, ethnicity should be balanced, and that factors such as early blindness and late onset blindness should be considered.

The findings of Snook-Hill and Fuchs (1997) parallel those of Robert Sommer (1969). Personal Space. Englewood Cliffs: NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. (pp.66-67)

Balgooyen, T. (1984). A group exercise in personal space. Small Group Behavior, 15, (1), 553-563.

Balgooyen conducted several experiments with students in an encounter group workshop. There were thirty-two participants of which fifteen were men and seventeen were women. These participants ranged from age twenty to fifty. As students entered the room, one at a time, they were instructed to select an area in the room of their own. The room was of such a size that each person could have taken seventy-five square feet. Nine of the participants took large amounts of space. The other chose to sit, stand, or lie on the floor, taking much less space. Balgooyen reported a tense atmosphere as he moved about the room and attempted to impose on others’ personal space.

During the second phase of the experiment the same group of participants was told that they could make any changes or join others. As this phase progressed, Balgooyen attempted to impose or invade the personal space of groups that were formed. He found greater resistance. This experiment continued through four phases with the same group of students. The results were similar in that larger groups were more resistant to invasions of personal space. Balgooyen also reported that those with similar emotions conglomerated. It appeared that the angry people joined together, while those who seemed joyful joined to create a group. Group members were more resistant to imposition than when approached as individuals.

This study of territoriality and personal space (proxemics) revealed that territoriality in human beings may be a far broader concept than has been previously thought. Angry people appear to be attracted to other angry people, while joyful people also attract one another. Lonely and sad people tend to isolate themselves

As I read this article, I could not help but wonder what effects resulted in the participants knowing what was being done. It would seem to me that the knowledge of what was to come would alter those students’ natural tendencies.

Hayduk, L. (1983). Personal space: Where we now stand. Psychological Bulletin, 94, (2), 293-335.

Hayduk reviewed a multitude of studies in the area of personal space. As the studies are reviewed, a wealth of information is presented, while at the same time, less reliable information is questioned based on the methods used by the researcher. The information presented by Hayduk could be very useful for facility planners and educators as well.

Hayduk addressed the issue of measurement considerations. Comparing the projective measures, which required participants to manipulate silhouettes, dolls, or drawings, and the real-life measures, Adler & Iverson (1975) found similar findings (cited in Hayduk, 1983, p.295), while according to Aiello & Thompson (1980), Mallenby (1974), Mellson (1977), Pedersen (1973), Price & Dabbs (1974), Tennis & Dabbs (1975), more frequently quite different results are found using these two measures (cited in Hayduk, 1983).

In addition to measurement considerations, Hayduk examined modeling, shape, flexibility, permeability, density, crowding as they pertain to personal space. The characteristics of personal space as it relates to gender, age, personality, acquaintance, and cultural difference are extensively presented. Three theories of personal space, equilibrium, attribution, expectancy, are addressed as well.

This article provides an extensive overview of research in the area of personal space. Future research topics are also recommended. Although this article was written in 1983, it is a comprehensive piece for one interested in research in personal space.

Regarding the issue of intrusion, when subjects came within 70 centimeters (27.56 inches) of each other their discomfort levels began to rise (approximately 22 square feet per person). That is, when the distance from another person gets under 3 feet (36 square feet), discomfort starts to set in. The SDPL recommends approximately 49 square feet for students in elementary schools.