Change from Teachers' Perspectives: A Model of Personal Change
Nancy T. Davis
Florida State University
In recent years the nature of educational research has
changed dramatically. Not so long ago, research on teaching and
learning was a relatively abstracted experience with the access
to classrooms focused on responses to paper and pencil
instruments (Tobin, 1990). However, as ethnography has gained a
foothold in educational research, studies have become more
intense as researchers have begun to probe deeper, to find
meaning from the viewpoints of the participants in the
educational process. More recently the practice of teachers
accepting the role of researchers in their own classroom focusing
own their own beliefs about teaching has become more frequent.
This paper is about some of those teachers, their research and
their resulting change process. Categories of Educational
Research
Educational research can be delineated into categories based
on the purposes and methodologies of the research. One such
categorization system is base on Habermas's (1974) theory of
knowledge which he calls "knowledge-constitutive interests."
According to Habermas the knowledge that humans produce is
determined in part by the interest which motivates them.
Habermas suggests three categories of interests which strongly
influence the type of knowledge acquired; technical, practical,
and emancipatory. Rationality and knowledge is defined
differently within each of these interests, thus, the processes
of legitimate research are also different. By examining these
interests and selecting the one which most closely fits with the
goals of the research, individuals are able to determine if their
methods are best serving their intentions (Ewert, 1991).
Technical interests are based on an instrumental rationality and
have as a goal control. Educational research based on technical
interests seeks to discover cause and effect relationships in
teaching and learning in order to suggest the most efficient
manner in which to design instruction. Teaching is viewed as a
set of skills which can be mastered by the prospective teacher.
The process-product research based on student achievement scores
which dominated the 70's and 80's reflects technical interests.
Practical interests have a more subjective perspective and
have as a goal developing understanding. Social interaction and
moral decision-making become the focus. Educational research is
interpretive, focussing on the individual meanings persons assign
to events. Developing understanding of myths, customs, and
taboos (Tobin, 1991) of particular school cultures is of primary
importance for research. Much ethnographic research is based in
this category of educational research, the aim of which is
enlightenment.
While practical interests have as a goal enlightenment, that
is not enough if reformation is the ultimate goal of research.
Emancipatory interests contain an action component and are based
in critical theory.
Critical theory. . .is identified by its emphasis on
emancipation through enlightenment. Enlightenment comes
through a process of self-reflection. Self reflection
ideally reveals distorted self-knowledge and institutional
domination that prevent undistorted knowledge and the
achievement of true interest. Emancipation comes through
the awareness of hidden coercion and taking of freeing
action.[italics added] (Ewert, 1991, p. 355) The aim of
education is for the learner to develop autonomy. This is
problematic for the emancipatory educator and researcher and
includes many ethical dimensions (Tobin, 1990). Continued
analysis of the relationship between the outside researcher and
the participant must be conducted. Educational research is
critical, focusing on evaluative alternative perspectives and has
change as a goal. The change is not imposed from outside of the
context of the individual or institution but rather is from
within those who are changing.
A critical educational science. . . has a view of
educational reform that is participatory and collaborative;
it envisages a form of educational research which is
conducted by those involved in education themselves. It takes a
view of educational research as critical analysis directed
at transformation of educational practices, the educational
understandings and educational values of those involved in
the process, and the social and institutional structures which
provide frameworks for their action. In this sense, a
critical educational science is not research on or about
education, it is research in and for education. [emphasis in
the original] (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 156)
Those, then, who are involved in education should be the ones who
are doing the research. A question that immediately comes to
mind is "What is the role of the outside researcher?" Can an
educational researcher outside of the school play a role in
educational research that is emancipatory? Researchers who are
not part of the classroom have a delicate role based on the
relationship established between teachers and themselves.
For educational researchers who remain outside the
educational contexts being studied, this implies new
relationships between researchers and practitioners:
collaborative relationships in which the 'outsider' becomes a
'critical friend' helping 'insiders' to act more wisely,
prudently and critically in the process of transforming
education. (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 161) Educational researchers
who assume this role must always be aware of the ethical
implications of such a role. They must always be cognizant that
they are not participants within the institution of change, and
the practitioner's are the ones taking the risks. Outside
researchers must constantly be examining their own motivation in
the guidance provided.
This study is based on emancipatory interests and an
epistemology of constructivism. Therefore, it involves the
teachers themselves as researchers. My role was to expose the
teacher-researchers to ways of viewing the educative process and
to suggest to practitioners ways of looking into their own
backgrounds which allows them to examine influences which shaped
their beliefs about education. Therefore, the teachers wrote
critical autobiographies which traced their experiences in
education and explored the changes that were made in their
thinking and actions. These autobiographies continue to provide
these teachers with a foundation first to reflect, then to
evaluate their personal change processes.
Setting and Participants
The three teachers involved in this study were each enrolled
in a graduate program. The individuals were selected because
they were pursuing degrees beyond the masters and they
volunteered to participate with me in the research and
presentation of the research. The individuals are from different
backgrounds and are at differing points in their graduate work.
Because autobiographies are personal in nature the level of trust
established between the professor and the students affected their
writings. Therefore a brief description of the participants and
his or her relationship with the professor at the time they wrote
their autobiographies is listed below:
Les was a community college mathematics instructor who was
enrolled in his first course in his doctoral program in
mathematics education. Les held a masters degree in
mathematics. Prior to the course he had not met me.
Sandy was a high school biology teacher enrolled in the
science education doctoral program. She had taken one
course with me the previous semester.
Maggie was a high school chemistry teacher enrolled in the
science education specialist degree. Maggie and I shared a
collaborative relationship and she had taken numerous
courses with me previously. Maggie was planning to write a
thesis using her autobiography as a foundation.
Methodology
The data for this study was taken from three autobiographies
the teachers shared with me. Document analysis utilized category
coding techniques (Miles & Huberman, 1984). Data were read and
initial categories formulated. Further examination of the data
utilized color coding techniques to allowed categorization as the
data remained within the contexts in which it was written.
Further examination of the data was conducted to check for
consistency. The model which arose from the analysis was shared
with the participants to verify and elaborate findings.
Model of Personal Change
Analysis across the teachers' autobiographies allowed the
development of a model of change to be derived from the data.
This model includes four requisites and is embedded in
reflection. The four requisites: disturbance, alternatives,
confidence, and action do not occur in a linear step-like fashion
but interact through a reflective process. The model will be
supported with quotes from the teachers' autobiographies.
Disturbances. Each of the teachers felt some sort of
dissatisfaction with their current teaching practices or
situations. The level of disturbance varied with the individual
and the context. Disturbances occurred as the teachers reflected
on their students; I have noticed students memorizing rules;
when rules are misapplied, many students have difficulty
performing even a simple subtraction of the positive numbers
that they learned in elementary school. I have watched as
students, who were disabled through fear of mathematics or bored
with problems abstract to them, became unable to measure the
magnitude of a problem and arrived at answers such as 100
miles per hour as the speed of a swimmer. I have seen
students failing the same mathematics course several times
when I knew the time spent studying had been adequate. (Les,
p.1)
on the curriculum;
I began to believe that sophisticated chemistry concepts can
be more easily discussed and understood if the experience is
generated using materials common to a person's environment.
(Maggie, p. 11)
on their images of themselves teaching;
I still became funked [sic] of this acceptable routine I was
settling into. Was I going to end up like Mrs. Smith or Mr.
Jones who did the same thing and said the same thing day in
and day out for 30 years and then retire and collect social
security and a small pension from the teachers' retirement
association? (Sandy, pp. 5-6)
and with the political system of schools;
Unfortunately my experiences on the administrative level
have led me to realize the amount of politics involved. It
has become apparent to me that many times program
assignments and positions are awarded for personal reasons.
I have become disillusioned and unwilling to play by those rules
at this time. (Maggie, p. 12)
The level of disturbance also varied from minor irritations (Is
this all there is?) to severe emotional crises (decisions to
leave the teaching profession). Irrespective of the level of
disturbance, in order for change to occur the teacher must be
dissatisfied with current situations. Many teachers who return
for advanced degrees are seeking to resolve their own personal
disturbances.
Alternatives. As teachers sought to resolve conflict which
arises from disturbances they needed to have alternatives that
fit with their teaching experiences and beliefs. Through
my science education classes at FSU I became aware of the
constructivist epistemology. I can recall being immediately
excited by the ideas that were being suggested, however, it
was so different from any other education class I had been a
part of in the past, so I was confused as to whether I
understood. The more I heard, the more fascinated I became.
Here was a PhD with science credentials claiming that there is no
one right answer. A science educator suggesting that
perhaps problem after problem in chemistry was not the way
to teach the mole to mole ratio. Even suggesting that
perhaps high school students don't need to know the mole to
mole ratio! I distinctly remember thinking these people are
talking about a revolution in education. They are not
talking about changing a curricular activity but changing
our understanding of teaching and learning, raising our
consciousness level. After 5 years of teaching I was thrilled to
hear people concerning themselves with real teaching and
learning the way I experienced it everyday, not the way I
perceived schools wanted me to teach. (Maggie, p. 17)
Alternatives can arise from many sources including collaboration
with colleagues, readings, workshops, or graduate study. For
these teachers considering an epistemology radically different
from the predominant one in their schooling experiences provided
a viable alternative and possible solution to the disturbances in
their thinking. Because constructivism is radically different
from their previous ways of making sense it was important for the
alternatives to be connected closely to their personal
experiences. I have found this approach to be very "real."
Their beliefs touched my soul. They recognized what I felt
when I began teaching chemistry. (Maggie, p. 14)
By using constructivism as a referent the teachers were able to
reframe the questions they asked themselves about teaching and
learning.
Why do you do what you do everyday in your classroom? How
do you think your students learn? How do you learn? How
would you respond as a learner in your classroom? It gave
me a headache. (Sandy, p. 7)
As I embrace new ideas about learning, assessment of student
progress poses special problems. I know that assessment
should not be merely the averaging of individual, hour long,
paper-and-pencil tests. Allowing students considerable
choice in the method of assessment--what I have heard called
emancipated student assessment--holds special appeal for me.
(Les, p. 12)
Constructivism provided a new way of viewing teaching and
learning and allowed the teachers to formulate possible solutions
to the disturbances they had. Confidence. Through the
reformation of questions and the consideration of alternative
explanations the teachers began to realize that they were in
control of the way they conceptualized teaching and learning.
They had the power to change by re- conceptualizing their
thinking, thus they developed the confidence necessary for
change. Part of this process of developing confidence was their
acceptance of personal responsibility for the disturbances they
had created in their minds. They realized that their actions
made a difference and they were personally in control of their
choices. The problem was not a lack of materials or
resources. The problem was me! I had no voice. I just did
what I was supposed to do and did not really think anything.
(Sandy, p. 6)
I said that I wanted to study mathematics education in an
effort to learn more about the teaching and learning of
mathematics. I now believe that personal change is
necessary. My current practice is firmly rooted by 20 years
as a student experiencing positivist teaching and 12 years
teaching experience modeling this practice. But the
practices I now employ in educational activities seem in
some ways inadequate for their purposes. (Les, p. 8)
As they accepted responsibility they were able to make changes
and take risks. They also accepted responsibility for possible
mistakes but realized they were in control. The future holds
many changes for myself and hopefully some of my colleagues,
but none of these changes will come about unless I am willing
to take some risks. Along with these risks will come the
possibility of failure. The constraints that I have
encountered are personal, but that does not make them any
easier to deal with. Time, state mandates, administrative
decisions, and school board policies are still looking over my
shoulder. The changes I make in these areas will be open to
public scrutiny, but if they can be justified and I believe
in what I am doing, then I am willing to go against
resistance. (Sandy, p. 9)
These then are emancipated teachers, who realize that change is
within their own power to affect. Thus they are further able to
assess their own beliefs and practices as they continue their
personal development.
Action. What changes do these teachers perceive they have made?
Where do these individuals believe they need to be headed?
Examples of the changes these teachers made included overt
behavior changes such as changing assessment techniques,
classroom organization, nature of homework assignments, and
discipline strategies. However, a more abiding change was
realized as the teachers perceived changes in the way they view
mathematics and science and the learning of those disciplines.
Les reveals his change in the nature of mathematics and how
mathematical knowledge is acquired: My idea of teaching and
students' learning of mathematics was simple. Teaching
mathematics consisted of merely exposing concepts to learners
who take appropriate notes and reinforce through practice what
they have observed. If students would attend to my
demonstrations of concepts and the subsequent examples
illustrating the concepts, mastery would come with practice.
If students did not perform well, they were just not
practicing enough. Context and human subjectivity had no place
here; this was factual knowledge, and it was my job to
transmit this knowledge. . . . I have now come to believe
that the mathematical knowledge learners accumulate is
dependent on the learners' experiences and the individual
ways in which they organize information. Learning is contextual
and takes place as learners attempt to construct meaning
from a new experience from new information. Each individual
constructs a version of what he or she experiences, based on
existing knowledge and experience. Versions will differ
among individuals. (Les, pp. 9-10)
Through the awareness made possible by self reflection these
teachers were able to take freeing actions in their own teaching.
They were able to identify areas of personal weaknesses and set
their own course of action. Each one expressed the slowness of
change and the ongoing nature of their own learning process.
Sandy summarized her autobiography by stating:
Learning how to critically analyze my own knowledge and
teaching the students how to reflect on their own learning
calls for more responsibility from both parties. There will
be uncertainty, risk-taking, accommodations, and adaptations
before new equilibriums can be met. So far it has been very
exciting and many times a humbling experience. (Sandy, p. 9)
Discussion
The purpose of education from an emancipatory perspective is
for the learner to develop critical thinking and autonomy. This
requires the learner to be able to evaluate his or her learning
and to determine the direction of future learning. It is
impossible for a teacher to emancipate learners because only
learners can emancipate themselves. What a teacher can do is to
provide opportunities for learners to develop confidence in their
own ideas. Having the teachers with whom I work write critical
autobiographies was my attempt to help them develop that
confidence.
The autobiography was used as a tool to assist teachers in
reflecting on their previous experiences in teaching and
learning. The written product allows them to analyze their own
backgrounds. Through this analysis teachers were able to
illuminate factors within their cultures which contributed to the
formation of their beliefs. For example, both Maggie and Sandy
wrote about the influence of the "work ethic" on their beliefs
about teaching and learning. By identifying cultural influences
on their beliefs individuals are able to realize that these
beliefs are not reality to everyone. They can develop
understanding of others realities which may not include their own
cultural norms. They can also examine the sources of these norms
and determine implications these beliefs may have within the
culture. Using the work ethic as an example, they can now ask
who does this cultural norm benefit? Where does the control
behind such a norm lie? Through this examination teachers can
critically analysis components of their teaching culture which
may previously been hidden to them. They are then able to
determine if they want to retain that norm for themselves. They
gain control. Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule (1986)
reported similar results with women from their study:
During the process of self-examination, women feel a
heightened consciousness and sense of choice about "how I
want to think" and "how I want to be." They develop a
narrative sense of self--past and future. They do not want
to dismiss former ways of knowing so much as they want to
stay alert to the fact that different perspectives and different
points in time produce different answers. (p. 136)
They may elect to change or they may not, it a self-developed
choice. They are no longer just followers, they are shapers as
they consciously determine their goals and actively shape the
learning situations they desire.
The questions teachers ask about teaching and learning
change as they become aware of their own power. They are no
longer passive in their acceptance of authoritarian
pronouncements about what is right for their students. This does
not mean they dismiss cultural norms, but rather they accept
responsibility for evaluating the value of that norm. As Belenky
et al. (1986) found:
When [individuals] accept the responsibility for evaluating
and continually re-evaluating their assumptions about
knowledge, the attention and respect they might once have
awarded to the expert is transformed. They appreciate
expertise but back away from designating anyone an "expert'
without qualifying themselves. And evaluation of experts is not
only possible but is an important responsibility that they
assume. (p. 139) They realize that the value of their own ideas
and thoughts, which allows them to develop the confidence they
need to be able to take the freeing actions of an emancipated
individual.
Conclusions
The model of change purposed here is not the only model of
change. Within my own research several models of change have
been developed from differing data sources. Davis, 1989a; Davis,
1989b; Shaw, Davis, McCarty, 1991; Sidani-Tabbaa & Davis, 1991).
This is the first model founded firmly within emancipatory
interests. The power of individuals examining their own
histories has been revealed through my interaction with these
teachers. As educators learn more about the change process they
may assist others in their own critical analysis by examining the
patterns which arise across autobiographies. The development of
a model of personal change allows comparison to other models.
Through comparison, outside researchers can evaluate their
actions in being a 'critical friend' to teachers in the process
of change. An ultimate result of working with individuals as
they write autobiographies is the impact those biographies have
had on me. As I have read these teachers' insights into the
effect their experiences and culture has had on them, I learn
about myself. Their change has facilitated my change. This is
only the beginning. References
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